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Revived Cornish on the principle of tota Cornicitas

Taking account of all the evidence for historical Cornish

Common European Framework of Reference for Languages

Level B2 (Vantage, Higher Intermediate)

RAGLAVAR

FOREWORD

Cara Kernowek Book Four is the last in the Cara Kernowek series of coursebooks designed for motivated adults learning revived traditional Cornish with a teacher or by self-study. At present only some teachers of Cornish have a formal teaching qualification, and many teachers of those moving on from initial classes may still be learners themselves at a higher level. The course is scaffolded to encourage teachers to be confident of the core material, passing that confidence on to the student, who can then become a confident teacher of further students, in a virtuous cycle.

Standard Cornish is the spelling system used throughout. The course is divided for convenience into lessons, but teachers should work through the material at a pace that matches the interest and aptitude of the class. Teachers will no doubt wish to provide much additional opportunity to develop listening, speaking, reading and writing skills within the framework of each lesson.

The first three Cara Kernowek books introduced most of the grammar of the language, and Cara Kernowek Book Four assumes the student (and any teacher) will already be familiar with this earlier coverage. Students can now be guided through the challenge of tackling more complex material that deals with a range of circumstances from everyday life. There is also an emphasis on beginning to appreciate good writing in Cornish, including Passyon agan Arlùth (the ‘Passion Poem’) that is the pinnacle of achievement in historical Cornish literature.

The situations presented in the various exercises are set in the same slightly modified universe of the previous Cara Kernowek books, where Cornish is already the language of the home and work for a significant minority of people in Cornwall.

There is currently no GCSE or A Level qualification in the Cornish language. Books One and Two of the Cara Kernowek series are intended to cover the same sort of ground as might be expected for a GCSE in traditional Cormish. Likewise, one could consider the whole Cara Kernowek course, Books One to Four, as likely approximating the requirements of an A Level or International Baccalaureate in traditional Cornish if such qualifications were established.

I am ever grateful to Nicholas Williams and Michael Everson for their advice and support, and to Professor Williams in particular for allowing me to incorporate extracts from several of his translations. I should like to thank my students who road-tested the book, especially Dominic Ó Ceallaigh and Kyle Odgers.

Ian Jackson, MA (Cantab), MA (Oxon), QTS

lovinglivingcornish, February 2026

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CONTENS

CONTENTS

The vocabulary at the end of this book consolidates all the Cornish words introduced in Cara Kernowek Book One, Cara Kernowek Book Two, Cara Kernowek Book Three and Cara Kernowek Book Four

Here are links to Cara Kernowek Book One, Cara Kernowek Book Two and Cara Kernowek Book Three in case you need to refer back to them for grammar or explanation

Return to Cara Kernowek Book One

Return to Cara Kernowek Book Two

Return to Cara Kernowek Book Three

Lesson 1

Containing Exercises 1 - 6

More about adjectival phrases; descriptive writing; alliteration in all forms of Cornish; pairing of nouns / adjectives; correspondence

Lesson 2

Containing Exercises 7 - 10

Adverbs of position, direction, motion; prepositions from adverbs; literary tenses of mos and dos; literary prose in revived Cornish

Lesson 3

Containing Exercises 11 - 16

Continuing event or state measured from its beginning; translations by Nicholas Williams; inflected forms of don; inflected forms of dry; verse translation

Lesson 4

Containing Exercises 17 - 21

More anecdotal story-telling; unaffected stem vowels in the inflected preterite tense

Lesson 5

Containing Exercises 22 - 27

Constructions yw genef summarized and contrasted; conversational Cornish; phrases for conversation; more about inflected preterites: the you-singular form; more revision of bos; quasi-verb pew ‘possess, own’; psychological intensity in fiction; saying ‘immediately’

Lesson 6

Containing Exercises 28 - 30

Plural of nouns ending in as; more about Caradar; Tristan hag Isolt; Lethesow

Lesson 7

Containing Exercises 31 - 35

Pathos in prose; taking care with collective nouns; more about inflected imperfects

Lesson 8

Containing Exercises 36 - 40

Verbs that are exclusively intransitive; oratory

Lesson 9

Containing Exercises 41 - 45

Inflected preterite tense with ending ys instead of as; literary allegory; orth versus ow (owth); beach conditions; sixteen points of the compass; alternating gender in measures of time and non-metric length

Lesson 10

Containing Exercises 46 - 50

Colloquial Cornish in literature; copula imperfect tense of bos in colloquial Cornish; Second State of gr; more about mutation of gw

Lesson 11

Containing Exercises 51 - 55

Colloquial Cornish in literature – the historical record; more triadic folklore; words for wisdom etc; checklist of inflected comparatives; superlative idea expressed with comparative; Cornwall’s dangerous coast

Lesson 12

Containing Exercises 56 - 60

Cornish poetry – the historical record; archaic grammar

Stagell - Appendix: Ordyr Geryow - Word Order

Gerva - Vocabulary: All the Cornish words in the Cara Kernowek course

Coming soon: Links to model answers for the exercises

Click or tap here for the Pronunciation Guide

Click or tap here for a Consolidated Index to the whole Cara Kernowek course

No artificial intelligence was used in the writing of this book

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LESSON ONEN

LESSON ONE

Vocabulary

Here are some more new words.

estrednek foreign, Evrok York, kerens pl close kin (often, but not inevitably, parents), legryans m corruption, longus belonging, paragraf m paragraph

‘Commerce’ is kenwerth, a borrowing into Cornish from Breton. It is one of only a few words that employ the reinforcing prefix ken, a variant of the much more common prefix ke; and kenwerth is masculine, although the basic word gwerth ‘sale’ is feminine in Cornish. We encountered Chy an Kenwerth ‘The Chamber of Commerce’ in Book Three.

Practys Onen - Exercise One

Obma y kefyr trailyans a’n kensa paragraf a’n novel Robinson Crusoe gans Daniel Defoe (1719).

My a veu genys i’n vledhen 1632, i’n cyta Evrok, ha’m teylu o onen dâ, kyn nag o longus dhe’n wlas-na, awos ow thas dhe vos den estrednek a Bremen, ha trigys wostallath in Hull. Ev a wainyas stât dâ dre genwerth, ha warlergh ev dhe omdedna a’n chyffar y feuva trigys in Evrok. Ena y whrug ev demedhy ow mabm, ha’y herens hy o henwys Robinson, teylu pòr dhâ i’n wlas-na, ha my rag hedna cries Robinson Kreutznaer; saw der an legryans yw ûsys in Pow an Sowson, ny yw lebmyn cries, nâ, yth eson ny orth agan cria gàn honen hag ow scrifa gàn hanow, Crusoe, hag indelma pùb termyn y fedha cowetha orth ow cria vy.

The passage contains six tenses of the verb bos: present copula (short form), present local (long form), imperfect copula (short form), imperfect local (long form), imperfect habitual, preterite. Check back in the previous three coursebooks if you are in doubt about the different circumstances in which each of these tenses is used.

Vocabulary

Here are some more new words.

drogdybysak m suspect, dùstuny m witness (also evidence), gwybya v dart, sprint, helerhy v detect, ladrans m theft, merk m mark, brand, ôp m ope, alley, ownek frightened, pel vas f baseball, sewt resegva m tracksuit

Police CID ranks: constâbyl helerhy ‘detective constable’, serjont helerhy ‘detective sergeant’, arolegyth helerhy ‘detective inspector’ (optionally arolegydhes helerhy if female), avîsyor helerhy ‘detective superintendent’ (optionally avîsyores helerhy if female)

Practys Dew - Exercise Two

Yma S.H. Ella Brock, Creslu Densher ha Kernow, Trûrû, ow whythra ladrans a wharva in cres an dre. Obma why a yll redya radn a’y scrif pàn wrug hy keswel gans benyn yw onen a’n lies dùstuny.

“An dùstuny a dherivys orthyf fatell esa hy ow kerdhes i’n Strêt Arâg wor’tu ha gorsaf an bùssow pàn welas den ow tones in udn fysky in mes a shoppa an fônow skentyl. Hy a lavaras cudhlen dhe vos wàr y fâss hag ev ow sensy sagh dyllas, o brâs ha du. Yth eson ny ow cresy bos hebma, dre lycklod, sagh sport a’n merk Puma^®, awos an dùstuny dhe remembra hy a wrug aspia pyctour a gath wydn, ow ponya, wàr an tenewen. Hy a styryas fatell savas hy stag, pòr ownek, drefen hy dhe gonvedhes yth o lader heb mar, ha hy ow predery y vos ervys pàr hap. Hy a dhescrefas an den dell o yonk, crev y gorf, cres y hës, ha gwyskys in sewt resegva, onen loos, skyjyow sport o plos, ha cappa pel vas – nyns yw hy sur a’n colour, gwer martesen. Blew an den yw hir, ha hy certan y bosans gorm. An dùstuny a wrug confyrmya an drogdybysak dhe wybya dres an strêt, may feuva gyllys mes a wel i’n ôp usy ow corra dhe’n park kerry.”

The passage contains many examples of affirmative indirect statement. Check back in Lessons Fourteen, Fifteen and Sixteen of Book Two if you are unsure of the various ways in which such indirect statements are constructed. You will find an English version of the passage among the model answers for this Lesson. Try putting it back into Cornish, without looking at the original. How did you do?

Vocabulary

Here are some more new words.

abrans m eyebrow, arlyw m shade, tint, askellek winged, balek jutting, bojek bushy, bond codna m collar, breselus quarrelsome, brith speckled, streaked, challa m jowl, frobmans m agitation, gell (light) brown, glew bright, intense, jolyf jolly, cheerful, kil m back, ledrek sloping (also biased), lescans m swaying, minvlew col moustache, onest decent, pegans m means (money), pesky v feed, stag fixed, syker strong drink, spirits, tacluster m neatness, tewl dark, ton m tone (also tune), wherow bitter

The verb-noun godhvos is employed as an ordinary masculine noun meaning ‘knowledge’; compare skians which is discussed in Lesson Eleven.

The ‘back’ of a person or an animal is keyn, and this word is also used analogously for things like chairs. We use kil to mean ‘back’ in a more general sense. We have already encountered kilva ‘background’ in Book Three.

Pesky is confined to animals, and humans figuratively (with a negative nuance). Boosa is not usually employed of feeding people, for which the positively nuanced verbs are maga or noryshya. We use methy for feeding babies; also for catering! Mêthryn is an older form of this word, nowadays largely confined to the fixed phrase scol vêthryn ‘nursery school, pre-school’; one of the few expressions in which we find a verb-noun put into Second State because it is functioning as an attributive adjective with a feminine singular noun – an example of the occasional tendency of initial m to mutate even when there is no strict grammatical reason for it. Compare the phrase in pan vaner. The Second State in scol vêthryn can be attributed to the influence of Welsh ysgol feithrin.

More about adjectival phrases

Here are some adjectival phrases. They have all been drawn from the first three chapters of An Nawnjek Stap warn Ugans – that is, the Cornish translation of John Buchan’s The Thirty-nine Steps – along with the English original in each case.

arlyw gell y fâss brown complexion, askellek y stap with wingéd step (quotation from Milton), balek y jalla prognathous, bojek y abrans with bushy eyebrows, brâs y frobmans in great excitement, brâs y vyns big, breselus y don pugnaciously (someone talking), brith y lagas wall-eyed, coynt y deythy queer (of a smell), dâ y begans pretty well off (of a man), freth y davas volubly (someone talking), glewa y wolok his eyes brightening, gwanbeskys y vinvlew with an ill-nourished moustache, gwydn y fâss white-faced, heudh y jer cheerily (someone talking), jolyf y lescans jaunty (someone’s walk), kil-ledrek y dâl with a retreating brow, marow re y syker perished from too much alcohol, meur y dacluster spick and span, meur y dalent a great hand (at something), meur y les greatly interested (in something), meur y wodhvos familiarly (talking about other people), onest y sawor honest-smelling, stag y lagasow staring (of a corpse), stag y vond codna with a collar (of a shirt, at a time when collars were often separate), tew y boblans over-thick with population, tewl y lagas dark-eyed, uvel y vaner humbly, wherow y edrek in bitter regret, yonk y lev with a young voice

Check back in Lesson Eleven of Book Two if you are unsure how an adjectival phrase is constructed. Remember that any possessive pronoun is possible as the middle element, depending on who or what is being described.

Adjectival phrases play a very significant role in good Cornish; there are literally thousands of possibilities for combining adjectives with nouns to create them; and they often depend on context for their precise meaning. They can be employed as adverbs; in this usage they are never preceded by yn. They may sometimes be primarily a stylistic device: for example, brâs y vyns as an equivalent of simple brâs.

The best starting-point to develop your own rich stock of adjectival phrases will be the adjectives brâs and meur. As a simple adjective meur occurs relatively infrequently in modern Cornish, except in a few fixed phrases like meur ras ‘thank you’ – we mostly encounter it as an intensifier with comparatives: meur moy ‘much more’; and as a quantifier: meur a ‘a lot of’. In adjectival phrases, though brâs and meur are interchangeable, meur is generally more common than brâs when the sense is magnitude rather than straightforward physical size. So brâs y frobmans, for instance, would more usually be meur y frobmans; and meur y les might less frequently be brâs y les.

Meur (brâs) y les is a good example of the importance of context. It can be used of someone who is ‘greatly interested’ in something’; more frequently, it is found in the sense of something that is ‘very interesting’ to someone. Likewise meur (brâs) y vern used either of someone who is ‘very concerned’ about something or (again, more frequently) of something that is ‘very important’ to someone.

Lies as a simple adjective is followed by a singular noun, but a plural noun is employed with it in an adjectival phrase. For example, lies meryt ‘many merits’, lies y verytys ‘meritorious’. Lies is also used as an adjective-building prefix corresponding to English ‘multi’; liesleur ‘multistorey’ for instance.

Vocabulary

Here are some more new words.

anal m & f breath, berr short, carnalyta m sex (sexual attractiveness / activity), colonyow pl innards, intestines, dysplegyans m development, gwredhen f root, lordyans m domineering, norter m upbringing, noth naked, ôpyn open, stoppya v stop up, trogh broken (often figuratively), whethfy v swell, bubble

The verb-noun gweles is employed as an ordinary masculine noun meaning ‘sight’.

‘Open’ by nature is ôpyn. For something that opens and closes (a door, for example) ‘open’ is egerys, which may also be used figuratively.

Stoppya can be used figuratively to mean ‘stop’ an action or movement, usually with some sense of forcefulness, as we observed in Exercise Two.

Whethfy has a variant hothfy that we met in the advertisement for a jacuzzi in Book Three. The former might be kept for ‘swell’ and the latter for ‘bubble’. But it is important to realize that although in English these meanings are distinct, in Cornish they are just aspects of a single idea, and a particular Cornish speaker may use just one of the forms, or mix them merely for stylistic reasons.

Practys Try - Exercise Three

What do you think the following adjectival phrases might mean in a suitable context?

berr y anal, bohes y dhysplegyans, bohes y wovenek, brâs y brow, brâs y golon, brâs y gòst, cales y bedn, cledh y dhêwla, cler y bedn, dâ y golon, dâ y norter, dâ y vanerow, down y wredhyow, drog y gnas, drog y jer, efan y vrës, êsy y gowethas, Frynkek y davas, gwag y dhêwla, gyllys y wyns, hager y dros, hir y davas, isel y godna, isel y spyrys, kellys y lyw, lybm y lagas, melen y vlew, meur y dednvos, meur y dhynyta, meur y lordyans, meur y roweth, meur y skians, noth y dreys, ôpyn y dhorn, ôpyn y garnalyta, pell y vrës, plos y vrës, rych y awen, scav y bedn, stoppys y golonyow, teg y semlant, trogh y golon, tyckly y styr, uhel y bris, uhel y dhewfrik, uthyk y weles, wheg y sawor, wheg y weles, whethfys y gows, yêyn y woos

Other frequent adjectival phrases we have already met include meur y bris ‘important’, meur y hanow ‘renowned, famous’, meur y valew ‘valuable’, tanek y golon ‘enthusiastic’ (tanek ‘fiery’). Another common phrase, which must be understood as a metaphor, is gwydn y vÿs (less often as a single-word adjective gwydnvÿs) meaning ‘fortunate, well off’.

Practys Peswar - Exercise Four

How might you express the following ideas as an adjectival phrase in Cornish?

blue-eyed, broke, childishly, high-heeled, in a fit of fury, insincerely, middle-aged, more optimistically, to a traditional recipe, with a healthy appetite

It is worth emphasizing that the first element of an adjectival phrase must be an adjective (or an adverb functioning as an adjective); it cannot be a noun. For instance, we encounter in Chapter 3 of An Nawnjek Stap warn Ugans a river that is described as gorm y golour kepar ha coref ‘porter-coloured’. It would not be correct to substitute coref gorm y golour – this could only be a genitive construction meaning ‘porter of its colour’ which makes no sense. We must however acknowledge that this rule is occasionally broken when ambiguity is unlikely in practice.

Vocabulary

Here are some more new words.

air m air, alês widely, amal m edge, rim, androw m late afternoon, astronomek astronomical, chêson (also achêson, ocasyon) m occasion, reason, clôsya v close in, contrast m contrast, cow hollow, cowethyans m association, relationship (also organization), crèn m shiver, trepidation, dargana v foretell, dëdhdardh m daybreak, dhe wir phr truly, really, duder m blackness, gloom, dworenos at dusk (also masculine noun ‘dusk’), dyblans distinct, dyfeth m desert, waste, dyppa m dip, hollow, ebron f sky, effeth m effect, eythyn col furze, gorse, fagas col faggots, fyrmament m firmament, fysment m countenance, glasny m greenness (of vegetation), glory m glory, gwadnwosek pallid, gwydnyk whitish, pale gwylfos m wilderness, in dêda indeed, inter an dhew wolow phr [at] dusk, keas v enclose, kescolonecter m sympathy, lent’he v slow, lobm bare, loor f moon, merkya v mark, nes’hevyn pl relatives, nev m heaven, omdhysqwedhes v appear, omgolorya v take on a hue, percêvya v perceive, rolyans m roll(ing), ros f heath(land), skeuslyw m shade, tint, skew f screen, speyss m while, styr m meaning, tedna v pull, draw, tent m tent, terry an jëdh m daybreak, dawn, teweth m storm, tewlwolow m twilight, tewlyjyon m dark[ness], obscurity, tewolgow pl dark[ness], tolgh m hillock, trehor m cutter (also tailor), trèm f look, trist’he v sadden, tueth m tendency, tyldya v cover with an awning

The verb-noun dybarth is employed as an ordinary masculine noun meaning ‘separation’ (also ‘departure)’.

Descriptive writing

Cornish adjectival phrases are an important linguistic device, but many other techniques can be deployed in descriptive writing. Here are the first three paragraphs of An Genesyk Dewhelys – that is, the Cornish translation of The Return of the Native (1878) – Thomas Hardy’s famous opening description of his fictional Egdon Heath.

Yth o androw unn Sadorn a vis Du, ha’n dworenos ogas, ha Ros Egdon efan alês, gwylfos na veu kës bythqweth in park, owth omgolorya gorm, pols ha pols. Ow tegea an ebron yth esa cloud gwynnyk cow, kepar ha tent a vynna tyldya oll an ros in leur.

Awos an skew wannwosek-ma wàr an nev, ha’n glasny a’n duha dres an dor, lînen aga metyans worth an gorwel o merkys cler. I’n contrast lomm-ma yth esa semlant speyss a nosweyth dhe’n ros, o gorrys kyns an ewn eur astronomek: tewlwolow a veu devedhys dre vrâs warnedhy, ha golow an jëdh i’n ebron whath dyblans. Trehor eythyn mar mirra in bàn, ev a vensa pêsya y whel: mar mirra dhe’n dor, y fensa cowlwul y fagosen ha mos tre. Emlow pell an norvÿs ha’n fyrmament, yth hevellens unn dybarth gwrës i’n mater, hag i’n termyn kefrës. Fâss an ros, drefen lyw an very fysment, y whrug addya hanter our dhe’n gordhuwher: i’n keth maner y hylly lent’he dëdhdardh, trist’he cres an jorna, dargana trèm sad an teweth pàn na ve ma’s nowyth genys, ha crefhe tewder neb hanter-nos heb loor bys in chêson euth ha crèn.

In dêda, worth an poynt-ma in rolyans pùb nos inter an dhew wolow, y talethy wàr dhyfeth Egdon an glory meur hag arbennyk o longus dhedhy, ha ny ylly den vëth leverel ùnderstondyng a’n ros mar ny veuva bythqweth ena in kepar prÿjweyth. Yth o hy dhe glôwes yn corforek pàn na ve dhe weles yn cler. Oll hy styr, hy effeth o kefys i’n eur-ma hag i’n ourys kyns terry an nessa dëdh: ny vedha hy whedhel derivys dhe wir marnas i’n keth prës. An tyller o, heb wow, nes’hevyn dhe’n nos; ha pàn ve an nos owth omdhysqwedhes y fedha tueth tenna warbarth dhe bercêvya in hy skeuslyw ha’y golok. Yth hevelly bos an tolhow ha’n dyppys ow terevel yn tewl rag metya duder an gordhuwher in kescolonecter pur, ha’n ros owth anella tewolgow in mes mar scon dell esa ow codha dhia’n nevow. Tewlyjyon an air ha tewlyjyon an dor, y a glôsya in cowethyans mayth o pob avauncys hanter-fordh.

Practys Pymp - Exercise Five

If you are unsure, check in a suitable reference source what is meant by ‘alliteration’ (keslytherednans), ‘assonance’ (assenyans), ‘imagery’ (imajery), ‘metaphor’ (metafor), simile (semblans). How are these techniques employed in the passage to produce a powerful impression of the heath? Try to give at least the simpler parts of your explanation in Cornish.

Alliteration in all forms of Cornish

In English, alliteration is an important tool for rhetorical effect. Cornish, as a Celtic tongue, makes even greater use of the technique, simply as a mark of elegant expression, and it is therefore not confined to literature but is regularly employed in all registers of the language. There is no easy formula for effective alliteration; it depends very much on circumstance and style. But Cornish does have a particular affinity for consonants or consonant clusters deployed in a group of three, which we call an ‘alliterative triad’ (Cornish trias keslytherednek). You should look and listen for these triads in good Cornish, and gradually make them a part of your own speech and writing. Here’s a handy summary of the phenomenon, with the triads capitalized:

In Kernowek dâ, SpeSSly may Fo Sêmly, y Fydnyn ny Formya lavarow Gans Geryow, an eyl in nes y Gela, eus ow Comprehendya an Keth Kesson, TRy pùb TRo ha TReveth.

When counting a triad, you reckon consonant sounds that are the same, however they are actually spelled. Note too how triads may be intertwined.

Pairing of nouns / adjectives

The phrase tro ha treveth illustrate a useful pairing technique for adding emphasis, creating an alliterative effect, or for removing potential ambiguity. So tùchys ha tevys can be substituted for tevys ‘touched’ if this word on its own might mistakenly be taken for tevys ‘grown’. Or senys ha hudys, this time without alliteration, might be used instead of senys alone, when senys means ‘enchanted’ rather than ‘blessed’ (verb-noun sona), or ‘sounded’ (verb-noun seny).

Correspondence

Modern on-line communication has rendered the postal ‘letter’ largely redundant. The electronic form of correspondence by letter – so called ‘email’ – does however still exist for the time being. In each Lesson of this Book Four there will be a chance to formulate an email in response to a particular situation. Here is the first of them.

Practys Whe - Exercise Six

Write an email in suitable Cornish to a friend with whom you’ve arranged to have coffee one morning next week. Explain you got your dates confused, apologize, and ask if you can rearrange for the same day and time the week after next instead.

Begin with A gothman wheg or A gosyn wheg ‘Dear friend’– you can use either of these expressions, regardless of the gender of the person to whom you are writing. You can substitute ker for wheg if you like: again, for any person, without mutating the adjective to Second State, because both cothman and cosyn are grammatically masculine nouns.

There are various ways to sign off an email message. Perhaps the most common is Oll an gwelha ‘All the best’. Yn lel is another possibility. Other sign-offs are Gans gormynadow a’n gwelha ‘With best regards’ and Gans gormynadow cuv ‘With kind regards’. Some people prefer uncontracted gorhemynadow when being formal.

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LESSON DEW

LESSON TWO

Adverbs of position, direction, motion

In Cornish some adverbs (and adverbial expressions) are used only to indicate position; some only to indicate direction; some only to indicate motion; some may indicate direction or motion; some may indicate position, direction or motion.

As we have previously learned, ple, uncontracted py le, and py can all mean ‘where’ (position) or ‘to where, whither’ (direction or motion); obma can mean ‘here’ (position) or ‘to here, hither’ (direction or motion); but ena can only mean ‘there’ (position – also ‘then’ of position or sequence in time), and dy (dhy) can only mean ‘to there, thither’ (direction or motion).

Here are some more adverbs that indicate only position: adhelergh ‘behind’, adhyhow ‘on the right’, aglêdh ‘on the left’ arâg ‘ahead, in front’, a-uhon ‘above’, avàn ‘up, upstairs, in heaven’, avês ‘out, outside’, awartha ‘above, at the top’, awoles ‘below, at the bottom’, dres ena ‘over there’, wàr ves ‘out, outside’.

These adverbs indicate principally direction: wàr vàn ‘up’, wàr woles ‘down’. They are occasionally employed to indicate position or motion.

These adverbs indicate direction or motion: adenewen ‘aside, sideways’, adhedro ‘around’, adreus ‘across’, dhe’n dor ‘down’, dhe’n leur ‘down’, dhe ves ‘off, away’, in bàn ‘up’, in hans (in hons) ‘beyond’, in kerdh (occasionally in kergh) ‘away’, in mes ‘out, outside’, in nans ‘down’, in rag ‘forwards’, tre (also dhe dre or just dre) ‘home, back’, wàr dhelergh ‘backwards’, wàr nans ‘down’, wàr rag ‘forwards’.

These adverbs may indicate position, direction or motion: aberveth ‘in, inside’, adre dro (ader dro) ‘around’, adro ‘around’, ajy ‘inside’, arta ‘back (‘again’ when understood temporally), dres obma ‘over here’.

Prepositions from adverbs

Arâg is also used as a preposition meaning ‘ahead of, in front of’, synonymous with dhyrag which is only a preposition. Adhelergh, adhyhow, adreus, adro, aglêdh, ajy, avês form a corresponding preposition with dhe; adro may also be employed as a preposition on its own. Aberverth forms a corresponding preposition with in. On the other hand, abarth, adâl, adrëv, also adhyrag (an alternative to dhyrag), are only prepositions, they may not be used as adverbs. And it is not possible to ‘back-form’ an adverb from preposition aberth in. Remember that adâl and adrëv become adâl dhe and adrëv dhe when used with pronouns.

Vocabulary

Here are some more new words.

arlodhes f lady, bleynya v lead (a card), byd m ace, diamons pl diamonds (card suit), dyffransyn m variant, fros m flow, furvus formal, gwainyor m winner, gwedhowes f widow, kescowethyans m partnership, knava m knave, jack (at cards), mùllyon col clover (also clubs – card suit), myternes f queen, ordyr m order, pack m pack, radna v deal (cards), radnans m deal (cards), radnor m dealer (cards), scor m score, scowt f hussy, sewt m suit, trùmp m trump, tryck m trick (taken at cards)

Gans an howl means ‘clockwise’. Warbydn an howl is ‘anti-clockwise’.

Practys Seyth - Exercise Seven

An gwary cartednow Maria Dhu yw cries inwedh ‘Gwedhowes Dhu’, ‘Arlodhes Plos’, ‘Scowt Slynk’, ha lacka vëth. Yma lower dyffransyn. Ot obma rêwlys rag an sempla anodhans (yw an cotha kefrës), may fëdh an porpos goheles gwainya tryckys ow comprehendya neb carten Colodnow pò Myternes an Palyow. Nyns eus kescowethyans furvus: yma pùb gwarior ow qwary abarth y honen oll. Maria Dhu yw fytty rag try gwarior spessly, kynth eus peswar bys seyth ow servya yn tâ. A vydnowgh prevy an gwary cartednow-ma: prag na?

Cartednow: Pack kebmyn a 52 garten. Ordyr an cartednow yw Byd Mytern Myternes Knava Deg Naw Eth Seyth Whegh Pymp Peswar Try Dew. Nyns eus trùmp. Mars eus try gwarior, kebmer Dew an Mùllyon in mes. Mars eus peswar gwarior, na gebmer carten vëth in mes. Mars eus pymp gwarior, kebmer Dew an Mùllyon ha Dew an Diamons in mes. Mars eus whegh gwarior, kebmer pùb Dew in mes. Mars eus seyth gwarior, kebmer pùb Dew in mes, marnas Dew an Colodnow.

Radnans: Yma an radnans ha fros an gwary ow mos gans an howl. Gwra radna oll an cartednow onen hag onen.

Porpos: Goheles gwainya tryckys ow comprehendya neb carten Colodnow, ha goheles gwainya an tryck usy ow comprehendya Myternes an Palyow. Yma pùb Colon ow tylly 1 poynt warbydn hy gwainyor, ha Myternes an Palyow ow tylly 13 poynt wàr y bydn.

Keschaunj: Kyns dallath an gwary, yma pùb gwarior ow kemeres teyr harten in mes a’y dhorn ha’ga istyna, aga fâss dhe’n bord, dhe’n gwarior adhyhow, ha recêva teyr harten, aga fâss dhe’n bord, dhyworth an barth cledh. Bysy yw pùb gwarior dhe dhôwys hag istyna cartednow kyns ès kemeres an cartednow in bàn a wrug recêva. Mars eus moy ès peswar gwarior, an ûsadow yw istyna dyw garten only.

Fros an gwary: An gwarior aglêdh dhe’n radnor a wra bleynya kyns oll. Wosa hedna gwainyor a neb tryck a wra bleynya orth an nessa. Gwarior a yll bleynya pynag oll carten – y hyller bleynya Colon pò Myternes an Palyow. Res yw holya an sewt bleynys mars yw possybyl. Mar ny yllyth holya, ty a yll gwary ken sewt. An tryck yw gwainys der an uhelha carten a’n sewt bleynys.

Reckna an scor: Wàr dhyweth an dorn, yma pùb gwarior ow reckna y gartednow, hag ow scorya 1 poynt kereth rag pùb Colon, ha 13 poynt kereth rag Myternes an Palyow. Yma an gwary ow turya erna wrella udn gwarior drehedhes 50 poynt. An gwarior mayth eus an iselha cowl-sùbmen dhodho i’n eur-na, hèn yw an gwainyor.

Practys Eth - Exercise Eight

Write Cornish instructions for playing the card game ‘Snap’ (Cornish Knack).

Literary tenses of mos and dos

The inflected present-future of mos occurs very occasionally in everyday Cornish, but it is mostly a literary tense. The inflected imperfect tenses of both mos and dos are really only ever found in literature of a relatively high register. Here are the three tenses for reference.

MOS

Present-future

av vy, êth jy, â ev, â hy, â + noun subject, en ny, ewgh why, ôwns y

Imperfect

en vy, es jy, ê ev, ê hy, ê + noun subject, en ny, ewgh why, êns y

DOS

Present-future

See Lesson Four of Book Three

Imperfect

den vy, des jy, do ev, do hy, do + noun subject, den ny, dewgh why, dêns y

It is not difficult to see why these tenses are rare, for many of the forms ‘clash’ with each other, or with forms of bos, or with other monosyllabic words of quite different meaning.

Vocabulary

Here are some more new words.

amanydna v butter, avowa v confess, baily m bailiff, bedhygla v bellow, blam m blame, brawn m brawn, brest m brass, bùcka nos m goblin, camdremena v do wrong, cartha v purge, cawdarn m cauldron, chain m chain, chymbla m chimney, crefny tight-fisted, mean, crowjy m cabin, culyak reden m grasshopper, cùryak m facial spot, denewy v pour, det m see Notes below, dewedha v end, doust m dust, dyvynyon pl choppings, dywy v blaze, erbysyas m frugal person, eskernjy m rendering house, fals m crack, garma v cry out, bawl, garth m & f yard, gîky v peep, golghty m wash house, laundry, golghyon pl suds, gwil fors mind, care, hardha v bark, hens m way (usually figurative), hesken f saw, hôk m hawk, hot bowler m bowler hat, hunrosa v dream, in ogas near, keheryn m lean meat (also muscle), kendon f see Notes below, kigor m butcher, lien gwely m lienyow bed sheet, lorel m rascal, luhes col lightning, mer m bone marrow, mostethes m filth, owr m gold, plynken f plank, prenor m buyer, purchaser, prentysieth f apprenticeship, prevessa v go catching worms, pryk m point, pysky m pixie, pystylya v spout, spray, rèv m presumption, rin m hill(side), sans m saint, scrîja v scream, scùllya v spill, slop, seha v dry, selsygor m sausage maker, selsykty m sausage house, splùttra v splutter, stewany v drub, stôpya v stoop, storvya v starve, tarow m bull, taunt cheeky, impertinent, treveglos f churchtown, village (with a church), turont m tyrant, wàr nans down, wàr van up (position), whetha corn phr make a fuss, whybana v whistle, whyl m and whylen f beetle

To say ‘near’ a person or place we generally employ in ogas with possessive pronouns, and ogas dhe or in nes with nouns.

The adjective wolcùm is also employed as a masculine noun.

Literary prose in revived Cornish

A.S.D. Smith (1883 - 1950) – often called by his Welsh bardic name Caradar – was one of the very first to write literary prose in revived Cornish. Here is the anecdotal short story Hugh Polgreen ha’n Golghty, which first appeared in Caradar’s collection of stories published as Nebes Whethlow Ber in 1948. The text of the story has been updated to reflect changes in grammar and spelling since its first appearance.

Tom Tremayne o kigor agan treveglos ny, ha’y shoppa o chy coth wàr rin an vre. I’n garth adrëv an shoppa yth esa try crowjy in unn rew, haval aga lyw, myns, ha form: kensa, an golghty; nessa wàr vàn, an eskernjy; ha nebes pelha awartha an selsykty; hag in pùb onen a’n try yth esa cawdarn ha tan ow lesky in danno.

De Lun myttyn avarr yth esa Tom i’n eskernjy ow pryjyon mer in mes a’n eskern rag gwil brawn; i’n chy nessa awoles yth esa y wreg ow pryjyon dyllas, apronnyow, croglennow, lienyow gwely; hag i’n chy nessa awartha yth esa Willy Williams an selsygor ow pryjyon keheryn may halla y worra in crehyn, gans dyvynyon a’n bara amanynnys o gesys a’ga hawnsel; rag onen fest crefny o Tom Tremayne. Yth esa an try than ow tywy yn frav, ha’ga mog ow tenewy in mes a’n chymblys; hag yth o Tom maga fery avell hôk, ha ganso an dhew aral in y ogas, may hylly gwitha unn lagas warnodhans.

Hag ev ow clôwes y wreg ow tomma ha stewany an dyllas, kefrÿs son wheg an keheryn ow splùttra ha lamma i’n cawdarn, fors ny wrug a’n mostethes ha’n golghyon ow pystylya a’n cawdarn dhe’n leur. Rag yth o Tom erbysyas ha nebes turont magata. Storvya a wrussa an gath, heb dowt vÿth, mara’n jeffa onen a’n teylu mona lowr dhe brena cath; mès mona a fylly dhe bùbonen in chy an kigor saw unsel dhe Tom Tremayne y honen.

Bytegyns, kigor fur o Tom, my a’n avow; ha mars o va garow y gnas traweythyow orth Willy Williams, neb a’n jeva oll an blam pàn êth taclow yn camm, yth o va cortes lowr dh’y brenoryon.

Ogas ha pùbonen a vebyon an dreveglos a dhalathas y hens dre brentysieth in dann Tom Tremayne, ha’n gwelha anodhans a bêsyas dyw seythen. Ena y teuth Hugh Polgreen, hag ev ny bêsyas unn jÿdh. Ev a’n jeva cùryogas wàr y fâss, ev o pymthek bloodh a’y oos, hag yth esa ow tevy yn uskys. Ev a dhalathas servya i’n shoppa wàr an Lun yw campollys awartha.

An kensa myttyn-na otta va ow qwil y whel in maw dâ heb croffolas, hag ev ow whybana maga lowen avell culyak reden. Yth esa dowr tomm i’n bùcket, ha cartha an plynken kig i’n shoppa ev a wrug, hag ena tôwlel an dowr wàr an leur ha scùllya doust hesken warnodho rag y seha. Henna nyns o an vaner ûsys, ha dâ yth o bos Tom Tremayne i’n eskernjy mes a’y wolok.

Hag ev ow whybana lowen y gnas, ev a welas den ow tos an strêt wàr nans: den brâs, tew, ha ganso chain euryor owr – dhe’n lyha ev a hevelly bos owr, kyn hylly bos brest, ha wàr y benn yth esa hot bowler. Sevel adhyrag an shoppa ev a wrug in unn viras aberveth. Adhesempys, “Pyw osta jy?” ev a hardhas, kepar ha pàn ve Hugh neb sort a whylen wàr an leur. Bytegyns, kynth o va bian, ownek nyns o Hugh màn.

“My yw mytern an pyskys,” ev a worthebys. “Pyw osta jy? Mytern an bùckyas nos osta? An shoppa yw degës myttyn de Lun.”

“Taw dhymmo, ty lorel, na vÿdh taunt. Otta lowr a’th rèv. Py ma dha vêster?”

“Pyw a lavaraf dhe vos omma?”

“An baily. Ha fysky gwra, toth brâs!”

An baily! Hag ev ow clôwes an ger-na, miras orto a wrug Hugh ha’y dhewlagas alês!

“A … a … my â dh’y gerhes,” yn medh ev, ha dre an daras ev êth kepar ha luhesen.

Wosa hedhes an garth, ev a aspias Tom Tremayne, neb esa ow stôpya ha gîky dre fals in daras an selsykty, mar calla cafos Willy Williams ow camdremena neb maner.

“Mêster Tom! Mêster Tom! Yma an baily omma!”

An geryow-na a wrug dhe Tom lamma kepar ha pàn ve tanbellen Almaynek adrëv dhodho ha parys dhe dardha.

“Pandra? Pandra leverta? Re Vyhâl hag oll an Sens!” ha dre an daras bys i’n shoppa ev êth uskyssa ès dell o devedhys Hugh y honen, ha’y wreg wàr y lergh, kefrÿs Willy Williams, rag bedhygla a wrug Hugh kepar ha deg tarow. Hugh ny vynna kelly an sport, indelha ev inwedh a’n holyas.

I’n shoppa yth esa Tom, cogh y fâss, ow sevel arâg an baily hag ow carma: “Nefra ny vannaf pê, erna’m bo an mona a dal dha dhama wynn dhymm rag an darn avy a brenas hy dhyworthyf nans yw mis. Cafos ow mona my a vynn.”

“Yma nebes dyffrans inter êtek dynar ha tryhans pens, Mêster Tremayne,” yn medh an baily, “henna why a’n avow, heb mar, ha –” Hag ena Tom a welas an maw. “Yw ty eus omma? Kê dhe gerdhes, kê! Kemmer an keheryn-ma desempys ha’y worra i’n cawdarn,” ha wàr unn lamm ev a worras wàr geyn Hugh canstel vrâs leun a gig keheryn.

Yth êth Hugh in mes, crommys y dhywscoth, ow trebuchya adreus dhe’n garth poran aberth i’n kensa crowjy hag ena gwakhe an ganstel i’n cawdarn. Nessa, abàn na’n jeva wolcùm vÿth oll i’n shoppa, mos dhe wandra ev a wrug ha miras orth an yer ow prevessa adrëv an try crowjy.

Ev a alsa bos ena neb hanter our ow hunrosa kyns ès Tom dhe dhos a’n shoppa gans y wreg ha Willy Williams. Ena Tom êth i’n eskernjy, Willy i’n chy awartha, ha’n wreg i’n kensa chy.

Yth o Hugh ankevys gansans yn tien; mès henna ny dhuryas napell!

Adhesempys y teuth an wreg in unn bonya in mes a’n golghty, ow scrîja: “Ow lienyow! Ow apronnyow!”

Tom ha’y was êth aberth i’n golghty ha …

Mès gwell via dhymm dewedha i’n tyller-ma. Scant ny allaf dos dhe’n pryck-na may terivaf an pÿth oll a leverys Tom Tremayne: nâ, ny via henna vas …

My a’m beu unn wolok dhewetha a Hugh Polgreen: yth esa ev ow mos dhe ves heb whetha corn na gwil son, in unn slynkya dres an fos isel adrëv an try crowjy. Ena ponya ev a wrug kepar ha pàn ve an jowl wàr y lergh …

Notes

Adreus dhe is equivalent to dres when motion is involved, but it shows unambiguously that the sense is ‘across’, not ‘past’. Adreus dhe is used of position to mean ‘athwart, spanning’; whereas dres used of position means ‘on the other side of’.

Almaynek has always been employed as a masculine noun for the German language. But nowadays the masculine noun Alman, meaning ‘a German’, is more commonly used adjectivally to mean German in the sense of belonging to Germany as a country.

You can see here that both durya ‘endure’ and pêsya ‘continue’ may be used for the idea of how long something ‘lasts’.

Caradar’s in maw dâ ‘as a good boy’ would more likely be expressed by avell maw dâ in today’s Cornish. This use of in with a noun parallels the formation of adverbs from adjectives with particle yn (which etymologically is identical to in). But it is not the same construction, because there is no mutation after in whereas yn is followed by Fifth State. Compare in gwir ‘indeed’, literally ‘as truth’.

Labma is an alternative verb-noun to lebmel.

Note my a’n avow with infixed pronoun, where English would say simply ‘I confess’ or ‘I admit’ without any expressed object. The infixed pronoun can act as a buffer between two similar vowels (as here), or may block a mutation as in my a’n tÿb ‘I think’, and is anyway more elegant stylistically.

Caradar follows historical precedent in leaving plynken in First State after the definite article. In modern times it is treated as a feminine noun, but perhaps it was in fact originally masculine.

The oath re Vyhâl reflects Michael’s status as the guardian angel of Cornwall.

Ty lorel presents no grammatical issue, but you should note that a noun used with ty (or te) in this way may optionally be put into Second State when that is possible. So we might say, for example, ty bedn pyst. In principle the same applies to why; but Second State after why is quite rare.

We examined the verb tyly in Lesson Twelve of Book Three. It is commonly employed to mean ‘ought to’. Caradar here uses it to mean ‘owe’ a sum of money, contrasted with pê ‘pay’, where the context makes clear the debt is still outstanding. This is a literary usage. Bos in kendon rag (literally ‘be in debt for’) is the normal expression in everyday Cornish corresponding to English ‘owe’. Kendon means ‘debt’ in the sense of ‘indebtedness’, and is employed to refer to one or more liabilities in an accounting sense; det is the word for an individual debt.

Practys Naw - Exercise Nine

In Hugh Polgreen ha’n Golghty what are all the ways in which Caradar works to engage and hold our interest? Say as much as you can about the story in Cornish before supplementing your answer in English.

Practys Deg - Exercise Ten

Write an email message in suitable Cornish to your father’s brother congratulating him on his sixtieth birthday. You don’t see this uncle very often; you’re sending the message primarily to please your father.

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LESSON TRY

LESSON THREE

Vocabulary

Here are some more new words.

aval paradîs m grapefruit, backen m bacon, crampeth col pancakes, crampethen oy f omelette, crwassont m croissant, gosogen f black pudding, greunvoos m cereal, kergh col oats, kynda m kind, oy m egg, pôchya v poach (cook), scrambla v scramble (eggs), sowman m salmon, sùgan gwynyol m maple syrup, tesen patâta f hash brown

Yos kergh is ‘porridge’ and oy Benet is an ‘egg Benedict’.

Practys Udnek - Exercise Eleven

You have just been promoted in your job. So you are treating yourself to a weekend in a luxury hotel. Here is the breakfast menu. Place your order. Perhaps you have special requests? Salt and pepper are on the table. Do you need any sauces? Enjoy!

ROL VYTEL HAWNSEL

Sùgan: aval, aval kerensa, aval paradîs, owraval, pînaval

Greunvoos a lies ehen

Yogùrt a lies kynda

Yos kergh

Leun-hawnsel a Gernow

Dôwysowgh in mes a’n re-ma (pò kemerowgh y oll)

Aval kerensa fries

Backen

Bara fries

Fav pebys

Gosogen

Oy (fries py pôchys py scramblys)

pò dew anedha martesen?

Scavellow cronak

Selsygen kig porhel

Tesen patâta

Crampethen (try oy) ha hàm, keus pò scavellow cronak gensy

Oyow scramblys ha sowman megys

Oyow Benet

Bara cras (cogh py gwynn py kemyskys)

Hàm

Keus a Gernow

Fùgennow Danek a lies sort

Crwassons

Crampeth ha sùgan gwynyol gansa

Kyfeth owraval ha lower aral

Mel a’n vro

Marmite^®, Nutella^®

Tê, coffy, choclet tomm

Leth buwgh: leun, hanter-dydhehen, dydhehen

Leth kergh

Dowr mûn

DERIVOWGH PÙB ALERGETH ARÂG DORN

Continuing event or state measured from its beginning

In English we might say (grumbling at a bus stop) ‘I have been waiting for an hour’. We use a perfect tense of the verb (‘have been waiting’) with the preposition ‘for’. In Cornish this kind of sentence is rendered by the present tense of the verb (because the situation is still on-going), and we employ nans yw to show how long since it began. So we would say yth esof vy ow cortos nans yw our.

When we report something that was continuing in the past, English moves into the pluperfect tense: ‘I had been waiting for an hour’. Cornish switches to the imperfect: yth esen vy ow cortos nans o our.

Check back to everything we learned about particle nans in Lesson Six of Book Three if you are unsure about how to use it correctly.

Practys Dêwdhek - Exercise Twelve

How would you say the following in Cornish?

They’ve been married for fifty eight years. You’ve been driving for three hours and really need a break (powesva). We’ve been hoping to find a better flat for a long time now (termyn pell solabrës). He’d been learning Cornish for years (lies bledhen), but unfortunately without much success. She’s been waiting far too long (meur re bell) for a hip replacement (clun serus).

Vocabulary

Here are some more new words.

aneth m residence, avîsment m consideration, notice, barv f beard, clappya v chat(ter), clor gentle, conscyans m conscience, coos m wood (wooded place), cravas v scratch, cravellas v scrape, crehylly v shake, jolt, crena v shiver, shudder, cry m cry, shout, cytysan m citizen, degol m holiday (single day), dewyn m beam, ray, diek idle, dorgell f cellar, doustya v dust, dysconfort m discomfort, discontent, egydna v bud, glanhe v clean, glanheans m cleaning, glyttra v glitter, golowy v glow, gleam, goodh’or f mole, grow m grit, gweskel v strike, gwiùs sinuous, gwydnlîmya v whitewash, gwynkya v wink, hautîn imperious, helyk col willows, hùbbadrylsy m racket (noise), huda v enchant, kelorn m pail, lagya v splash, lim gwydn (gwydnlîm) m whitewash, liv m flood, logosen dhowr f water rat, lowenek happy, merry, milgen m fur, nevek heavenly, omdhehesy v fling oneself, paw m & f paw, pelour m fur, piga v prick (also excite), pigans m excitement, pras m meadow, prëv golow m glow worm, pystry m witchcraft, recowntya v recount, tell, rônd (also rownd) round, rôsva f drive (also avenue), rùstla v rustle, scorn m scorn, scravynas v scrabble, scub m broom, scubylen f brush, sêsya v seize, skeul f ladder, sodyn sudden, sordya v arise (also raise), sows m sauce, tâl m forehead, brow, terlentry v sparkle, tremena v pass, trigva f dwelling, troyllya v whirl, wharth m laugh(ter), whednar m sixpence, whethfyans m swelling, bubbling (also inflation), whystra v whisper

Translations by Nicholas Williams

Nicholas Williams has translated more works of literature into Cornish than any other person. Perhaps most notably, he is the first to have translated the whole of the Bible into Cornish. By his example he has set high standards for modern Cornish prose, greatly enriching the language. Here is the beginning of his translation of An Gwyns in Helyk – that is, The Wind in the Willows by Kenneth Grahame (1908).

Yth esa an Goodh’or ow lavurya pòr gales oll an myttyn, ow clanhe y jy munys rag an gwaynten. Gans scubow i’n kensa, gans qwethow doustya wosa hedna; ha wosa hedna arta gans skeulyow ha stappys ha chairys, gans scubylen ha kelorn a lim gwydn; ernag o y vriansen ha’y lagasow leun a dhoust, yth o lim gwydn lagys wàr oll y vilgen du; hag yth esa pain in y geyn ha’y dhywvregh o uthyk sqwith. Yth esa an gwaynten ow qwaya i’n air a-uho hag i’n nor awoles, hag oll adro dhodho, owth entra bys in y jy tewl hag uvel gans y spyrys a dhysconfort nevek hag a hireth. Nyns o marth ytho ev dhe dôwlel y scubylen dhe’n dor yn sodyn ha leverel “Ren ow thas” ha “Ren ow barv!” ha “Molatuw wàr glanhe gwaynten!” ha fysky mes a’n chy heb gortos dhe omwysca in y gôta kyn fe. Yth esa neppÿth a-uho orth y elwel yn hautîn, hag ev êth heb let dhe’n geyfordh serth – o ragtho in le an rôsva grow usy dhyrag treven an bestas-na neb yw tregys moy ogas dha’n howl ha dha’n air. Indella ev a wrug cravas ha cravellas ha crambla ha scravynas, ha scravynas arta ha crambla ha cravellas ha cravas yn fysy gans y bawyow bian in udn leverel dhodho y honen, “In bàn genen! In bàn genen!” ha wàr an dyweth, pop! y dhewfrik a dheuth mes a'n nor hag aberth in golow an howl, hag ev a gafas y honen ow rolya in gwels tobm pras efan.

“Ass yw hebma teg!” yn medh an Goodh’or dhodho y honen. “Gwell yw hebma ès gwydnlîmya!” Yth esa golow an howl ow tesy y belour, hag awellow clor ow chersya y dâl tobm; wosa y vêwnans mar hir y honen oll in dorgellow, yth esa canow an ÿdhyn lowenek ow qweskel y scovornow sogh kepar ha cry. Ev a bêsyas wàr y fordh, ow lebmel i’n air ha’y beswar paw dhywar an dor, hag ev mar leun a joy a’n bêwnans, hag a blesour a'n gwaynten heb glanheans. Ev êth dres an pras erna wrug ev dos dhe’n ke wàr an tu aral.

“Ho! Sav ena!” yn medh conyn coth orth an aswy. “Whednar rag cubmyas dhe dremena wàr an fordh bryveth!” Meur y scorn ha bohes y berthyans, an Goodh’or a’n towlas heb let dhe’n dor, ponya ryb an ke ow mockya an conynas erel, esa ow meras in mes a’ga thell rag gweles pandr’o an kedrydn. “Sows onyon ragowgh why! Sows onyon ragowgh why!” a leverys an Goodh’or, ow qwil ges anodhans, ha gyllys o kyns ès y dhe dhesmygy gorthyp ewn ragtho. Ena y a dhalathas croffolas an eyl orth y gela. “Ass osta gocky! Prag na wrusta leverel dhodho –?” “Wèl, prag na wrusta jy y leverel –?” “Te a alsa remembra dhodho –“, hag erel, hag erel, dell yw ûsys; saw i’n prës-na re holergh o, kepar dell yw an câss pùb termyn.

Yth hevelly kenyver tra dhodho re dhâ dhe vos gwir. Ev a wandras yn tywysyk obma hag ena dres an prasow, an keow ahës, der an cosow bian, hag in pùb le ev a gafas ÿdhyn ow qwil neythow, flourys owth egydna, delyow ow sordya – pùptra lowen, hag ow tos in rag ha bysy. Hag in le y gonscians dh’y biga in udn whystra “gwydnlîm!” in y scovarn, wàr neb fordh ny ylly ev marnas omglôwes pòr lowenek ev dhe vos an udn person diek in mesk oll an cytysans bysy-ma. Rag leverel an gwiryoneth, nyns yw an radn wella a dhegol te dhe vos ow powes dha honen martesen, adar te dhe weles oll an wesyon erel-ma ow lavurya yn freth.

Ev a gresy bos y joy colenwys hag ev ow qwandra ader dro heb towl, pàn gafas y honen ow sevel ryb ryver cowl-lenwys. Bythqweth kyns in oll y vêwnans ny welas ev ryver – an best tew gwiùs-ma, leun y gorf, esa ow resek hag ow renky, ow sêsya taclow gans whethfyans, orth aga gasa gans wharth, rag omdhehesy wàr gowetha gwary nowyth, hag y a wre shakya aga honen frank, kyns y dhe vos kechys ha sensys arta. Nyns esa in pùb tra marnas crena ha crehylly – golowy ha glyttra ha terlentry, rùstla ha troyllya, clappya ha whethfy. Yth esa an Goodh’or in dadn hus, in dadn bystry, in dadn son. Ev a bonyas ryb an ryver kepar ha flogh bian ow ponya ryb den usy orth y huda dre bigans y storys; ha wàr an dyweth ev a esedhas yn sqwith wàr an ladn, ha’n ryver whath ow clappya dhodho, ow troyll-dherivas an gwella whedhlow i’n bës an eyl wosa y gela, whedhlow neb a veu danvenys in mes a golon an nor dhe vos recowntys wosteweth dhe’n mor, uthyk brâs y ewl.

Dell esa va a’y eseth wàr an gwels hag ow meras dres an ryver, ev a aspias, in hans i’n ladn adâl dhodho, toll tewl – nebes a-ugh amal an dowr, hag ev a dhalathas predery kepar hag in hunros, assa via hedna trigva attês ha teg rag best na via whensys a veur, hag a vynsa aneth bian ryb an awan y blêsya yn frâs, aneth a-ugh level an lîvyow ha pell dhyworth hùbbadrylsy ha doust. Kepar dell esa ev ow meras, yth hevelly dhodho bos neppÿth bian glew ow terlentry i’n cres an toll, hag ena mos mes a wel, ha terlentry arta kepar ha steren vunys. Saw scant ny ylly bos steren in tyller a’n par-na; ha mar spladn o ha mar vian, na ylly bos prëv golow. Ena, pàn esa an Goodh’or ow meras, an dra a wrug gwynkya orto, ha dre hedna y feu dysqwedhys dhe vos lagas; ha nebes ha nebes fâss bian a wrug tevy in bàn adro dhe’n lagas, kepar ha fram adro dhe byctour.

Fâss bian gell ha minvlew warnodho.

Fâss sad rônd, ha’n keth dewyn in y lagas neb a wrug tedna y avîsment i’n kensa prës.

Scovornow bian kempen ha pelour tew kepar hag owrlyn.

An Logosen Dhowr o va!

Notes

Cornish has two distinct masculine nouns aneth. One means ‘residence’ (with plural anedhow). The other (with plural anethow) literally means ‘something worth a story’, so we find it both in the sense of ‘wonder’ and also of an ‘adventure’ (one that is safely past). To avoid ambiguity in practice, alternatives anedhyans and anedhva are frequently employed in the sense of ‘residence’.

An nor is an isolated nasal mutation of an dor ‘the ground’. There is no real difference in meaning; an nor is less common than an dor. The same nasal mutation occurs in an Norvÿs ‘the Earth’ that we have already met. We know that an and udn trigger sound changes in dëdh and dyowl (an jowl, udn jëdh, for example). Although here the result is j, not n, these are also usually described as instances of nasal mutation.

A-uho is a simplified alternative to more common a-ughto. In poetry another possibility is ughto, saving a syllable.

Dewyn in y lagas means ‘twinkle in [his] eye’.

Though goodh’or (or goodh dhor) is a feminine noun, the translator has chosen to use an Goodh’or, effectively as a personal name, because the character is male.

We met the adverb in hans (in hons) in Lesson Two. It will be useful to note also in hans (in hons) dhe which is the corresponding preposition.

Colenwys / cowl-lenwys is a play on words not found in the English original.

In one place in the passage, where a is the dominant vowel in the surrounding words, dha has been employed as an alternative to regular dhe. The alternative form is always available, and for some speakers it is the form they usually employ. Another alternative form commonly used by some speakers is dho.

Gwella is another spelling of gwelha. It reflects the fact that many only pronounce the ‘voiceless’ l represented by the spelling lh when the h is itself heard as the first sound of a separate element comprised in the word: for example gwelhe (that is, gwell + suffix he).

Characteristic of Nicholas Williams’ style is the relatively frequent use of in udn with a verb-noun that is then accompanied by its own direct object or equivalent. For example, in this passage, in udn leverel dhodho y honen followed by quoted speech. In a less marked style one might prefer ow (owth) to in udn in this situation.

Kepar dell esa ev ow meras illustrates how kepar dell ‘just as’ may be used (like its English equivalent) in a temporal sense. Likewise dell ‘as’. Both dell and kepar dell may also be used in a causal sense: for example, unverhës kepar dell on ‘seeing as we are all agreed’.

In Molatuw wàr glanhe gwaynten! there are two departures from ‘regular’ Cornish. Molatuw reflects the actual pronunciation of underlying mollath Duw ‘the curse of God’. As for glanhe, we would expect Second State but the g has been maintained to alliterate expressively with gwaynten. Derogations from strict grammar can be very frequent in practice. Among revivalists they are unfortunately often seen as ‘mistakes’; truly fluent speakers have little patience for such pedantry.

Pùptra is the usual spelling. Pùb tra is an alternative suggesting that ‘everything’ comprises a number of different things. Compare pùb onen a’n try in Hugh Polgreen ha’n Golghty with pùbonen ‘everyone’.

Pryveth is an alternative to pryva. In the latter form the final th has been lost and the resulting final e has weakened to a. We see the same phenomenon in dysqwa as an alternative to dysqweth, and in mena as an alternative to meneth. There is also plenteth as an alternative to plenta, and pyta alongside pyteth ‘pity’. And colloquially dygowseja alongside dygowsejeth. For some words the form in final eth is purely theoretical, never being actually found: cowetha (the plural of coweth), kerensa, mêsva ‘inch’ and notha ‘nakedness’ are examples.

Remembra means ‘remember’, but remembra dhe is one way of saying ‘remind’. Compare desky ‘learn’ but desky dhe ‘teach’.

The verb renky (like masculine noun ronk) is used of a whole range of sounds: snore, snort, croak, gurgle. Here it is used it to translate the ‘chuckling’ of the river. Contrast a person chuckling – usually expressed as wherthyn in y vriansen; whereas ronk in y vriansen means a ‘frog in [his] throat’.

Wosteweth is an alternative to worteweth. Likewise woteweth, oteweth.

Practys Tredhek - Exercise Thirteen

What emotions are evoked by the opening of An Gwyns i’n Helyk. What can you say about the way in which it achieves its effect? Start by talking / writing about the passage as much as you can in Cornish. Then you can switch to English. But then you should consider whether you might actually have been able to say it in Cornish after all.

Inflected forms of don

Don ‘carry’ (including ‘take’ by carrying) has an alternative verb-noun degy, and its verbal adjective is always degys. This verb also has a few inflected forms that occur frequently enough to be worth learning at this stage.

Present-future

deg (or dog)

as in me a dheg etc

Preterite

dug

as in me a dhug etc

Imperative

dog and degowgh

More or less exclusive to literature are subjunctive docka (or doga) as in may tocka ev ‘that he may / might take’, a tocka ev ‘if he were to take / had taken’; and conditional doksa as in y toksa hy ‘she would take / would have taken’.

Inflected forms of dry

The verb dry ‘bring’ is ry ‘give’ prefixed by de (contracted to d) meaning ‘to’. The inflected present-future forms of dry are therefore broadly parallel with those of ry, but note the different vowels in ren ny and dryn ny. The forms dre and dro correspond straightforwardly to re and ro; but there is also doro. So me a dhre, me a dhro, me a dhoro all mean ‘I’ll bring’. Imperative dro corresponds to ro. We saw in Lesson Seven of Book Two that imperative dro corresponds to ro; but disyllabic imperative doroy corresponds to roy.

Vocabulary

Here are some more new words.

brows col mash (also brewyon – see Lesson Fifteen of Book Three), cîder m cider, coffen f pie, coref du m stout, coref gell m ale, coref golow m lager, cùrry m curry, dewas jynjyber m ginger ale, dewas lymon m lemonade, dowr tobm molâss m rum, dowr tobm Wordhonek Irish whiskey, gwyras Rùssyan f vodka, papadùm m poppadom, pÿs col peas, rîss m rice, sawor mangô m mango chutney

Distinguish dewas jynjyber from coref jynjyber ‘ginger beer’ and gwin jynjyber ‘ginger wine.’ You can say rùm, vodka, wysky instead of the longer traditional names if you prefer. We use scav to indicate that a drink is ‘diet’.

Practys Peswardhek - Exercise Fourteen

Your promotion has been announced, so now you are with all your colleagues in the pub after work on Friday evening to celebrate. Your assistant has kindly taken everyone’s order. But in English. You know the service will be better in this pub at least if the order is placed in Cornish. Also you want to ensure there are no slip-ups. So take what your colleague has jotted down, and do the ordering yourself.

Drinks

3 ale; 1 stout; 1 lager; 1 cider; 1 rum, diet cola, ice; 1 vodka, lemonade, ice; 1 Irish whiskey, ginger ale, no ice; 1 red wine; 2 white wine

Food

4 chicken curry, rice, poppadom, mango chutney; 3 bangers, mash, peas; 3 fish pie, peas; 2 beef pie, chips, baked beans

Vocabulary

Here are some more new words.

bodhar deaf, caradôwder m friendliness, cor m wax, dagrow pl tears (weeping), ester col estren oysters, estrek f oyster bed, galarow pl affliction, hanas m sigh, hegas heinous, hyga v cheat, kerdh m walk, lien dorn m handkerchief, mir m look, mogh col swine, mordarow m walrus (also bull seal), morethak sorrowful, pednwydn white-capped, pyncha m pinch, qwit completely, rôsyas m stroll, scubya v sweep, spredya v spread, torth f loaf

We use prës to mean a ‘meal’ – literally, a time (to eat). Tru! is a more compact way of saying ass yw dieth!

Verse translation

Nicholas Williams has also demonstrated how English verse can be translated into Cornish very effectively. Here is The Walrus and the Carpenter from his translation of Through the Looking Glass and What Alice Found There by Lewis Carroll (1871).

Ow splanna th’esa’n howl avàn

wàr an mor gans crefter poos,

hag ev ow whelas golowy

tonnow pennwynn an fros,

ha hèn o coynt rag an prës in poynt

o ogas dhe hanter-nos.

An loor, hy o pòr serrys

nag o gyllys mes a wel

an howl in termyn hanter-nos

ha’n jëdh gorfennys pell.

“Gans an howl dyswrës yw oll an ges;

ev a dalvia godhvos gwell.”

Mar lëb o an mor dell ylly bos

ha porra sëgh an treth.

Cloud ny veu gwelys i’n nev avàn,

rag in kerdh oll an cloudys êth;

ny ylly bos gwelys edhen i’n air,

rag nyns esa edhen vëth.

Yth esa Mordarow ha Carpenter

ow kerdhes warbarth in nes.

Pàn welsons oll an tewas,

Y fowns y fest trist’hës.

“Splann via, a pe va,” medhans y

“oll scubys qwit dhe ves!”

“A pe mowes seyth gans scubyl seyth

ow scubya gweyth ha gool,

kyns penn whe mis” medh an Mordarow

“a alsens y lanhe oll?”

“Ny’n cresaf,” medh an Carpenter

ha’y dhagrow a godhas fol.

An Mordarow a besys,

“Dewgh genen, a Ester wheg.

Kerdh ha ges an treth ahës,

a ny via an rôsyas teg?

Rag sensy agan dêwla lowr

vëdh peswar dhyn, mar pleg.”

Kyn feras orto an Estren goth,

clôwys ny veu y lev.

An Estren goth a wynkyas

ha shakya y benn yn crev,

dhe leverel na vynna gasa

i’n estrek y dyller ev.

Mès ena y teuth ow ponya freth

peder estren yonk in bàn,

scubys gà dyllas, golhys gà fâss

hag ass o gà skyjyow glân!

Ha coynt o henna, why a wor,

rag treys ny’s tevons màn.

Peder moy ena a’s sewyas

ha peder moy dhe wir;

ena y teuth scon bys i’n treth

ost brâs, lowen gà mir,

ow lemmel der an ewon gwynn

rag crambla wàr an tir.

An Mordarow ha’n Carpenter

êth mildir in rag pò dyw,

hag i’n tor’-na wàr garrek sedha,

lowr isel kenyver tu;

saw in nes a wortas an Ester

gà sav pòr glor in rew.

Medh an Mordarow, “A lies tra

kestalkya ny a res:

a scathow, skyjyow, cor sêlya,

cawl, myterneth an bës,

usy ow pryjyon tomm an mor,

ha skelly dhe vogh mars eus.”

“Kyns dallath an cows,” medh an Ester,

“pols bian powes gwren;

dienys yw lies ahanan

ha tew on kenyver penn.”

Medh an Ser Prenn, “Na wrewgh fysky,”

ma’n grassons y ev yn fen.

Medh an Mordarow, “Torth a vara

an brâssa otham eus.

Ha nebes aysel a via splann;

a buber pynch kefrës.

Mars owgh parys, a Ester wheg,

dallath a wren an prës.”

“Na dhebrowgh ny!” medh an Ester bian,

ha trailyas glas gà lyw.

Wosa oll agas caradôwder,

Ny via ev gwrians gwyw.”

“Teg yw an nos,” medh an Mordarow;

“owgh why plêsys gans an vu?”

“Gromercy dhywgh a dhos genen.

Warbarth ny yw attês!”

An Ser Prenn yn medh yn unnyk

“Moy bara me a bës.

Dywweyth, ha te mar vodhar,

y’th erhys solabrës.”

Medh an Mordarow, “Dieth ywa

hyga an re-ma, tru!

Wosa gwil dhedhans ponya pell

ha mar uskys hegas yw.”

Ny gowsas an Ser Prenn ger vëth ma’s

“Ass yw an manyn spredys tew!”

“Ragowgh why,” medh an Mordarow

“ow galarow oll yth yns.”

Dhyrag y lagas glëb morethak

otta, lien dorn ev a syns

ha gans hanas ha dagrow y cùntell

an Ester a’n brâssa myns.

“A Ester,” yn medh an Carpenter

“yth o bryntyn ponya men!

I’n tor’-ma gwrewgh leverel:

kerdhes tro ha tre a wren?”

Saw gorthyp vëth ny gafas,

rag debrys êns kettep penn.

Practys Pymthek - Exercise Fifteen

An Mordarow ha’n Carpenter is a poem ostensibly for children, in the genre of ‘cautionary tales’, so it is very accessible in style while still displaying poetical features. What differences from ordinary Cornish prose can you identify?

Practys Whêtek - Exercise Sixteen

Write an email in suitable Cornish to your neighbour saying you’ll be away on dustbin day (argh atal ‘dustbin’) next week and asking if your neighbour would mind putting your recycling bin out for collection and taking it in again afterwards.

Recycling is dassteusyans. Some speakers use eylgelghyans instead, but this is a Cambricism: ail means ‘second’ in Welsh, but that is not the meaning of its cognate in Cornish – compare eylyans ‘alternation’, which does correctly reflect the sense of Cornish eyl.

**********

LESSON PESWAR

LESSON FOUR

Vocabulary

Here are some more new words.

cles cosy, snug, desîradow desirable, establyshya v establish, etew m log (for burning), forn f stove (also oven), gwedrans dewblek m double glazing, gwredhek original, kegyn-kynyowva f kitchen-diner, keryn troncas f bath tub, leurya v floor, nas f quality, feature, nowedhy v renew, update, parleth m parlour, penty m cottage, prysk col shrubs, tobmans cresednek m central heating

Practys Seytek - Exercise Seventeen

Your attention is caught by these estate agent’s particulars for a cottage somewhere on the south coast of Cornwall.

An anedhyans fest desîradow-ma yw penty brâs a veyn, re beu cowl-nowedhys aberveth, ow qwitha nâsyow gwredhek. Yma va ow comprehendya rom esedha gans forn etewy ha vu spladn dres an gwelyow dhe’n mor, parleth cles (a vëdh gwyw dhe sodhva py studhva), kegyn-kynyowva modern gans barr hawnsel ha daffar kegy tredanek, chif-chambour efan y vyns (kefrës gans vu bys i’n mor) gans cowas hag attêsva en suite, dyw jambour aral, golghva gans keryn troncas, attêsva dhyblans, spâss (leuryes) i’n to, tobmans cresednek gass, gwedrans dewblek in pùb le, lowarth dynyak yw gwels gans prysk establyshys yn tâ. Tîtel franklyn.

Write estate agent’s particulars for a property you might like to buy in Cornwall. Assume you have won the lottery for whatever sum you require. One can dream!

‘Leasehold title’ would be perhenogeth dre brÿsles (literally ‘ownership through lease’). An ‘estate agent’ is mainor treven. ‘Particulars’ are manylyon.

Vocabulary

Here are some more new words.

ambos m bargain (also condition), ancresadow unbelievable, anowy v kindle, light, ascendya v ascend, go up, assaultya v attack, brall m dent, bysmêr m scandal, cala col straw, conery v rage, cronkya v beat, cùssya v curse, dalhe v blind, dygabester reckless, dylês uninteresting, dystyr meaningless, egerel f opener, frank m franc, gladn f bank (of river), goly m wound, gorlywans m exaggeration, gortheby v correspond (to something), gweljow m (pair of) scissors, hacter m ugliness, hanafer m hamper, hanaja v sigh, hig m hook, kelyllyk m & f pocket knife, kildedna v withdraw, lîsak muddy, lowenhe v cheer up, lysten f band(age), molethy v curse, mortholya v hammer, mynsonieth f geometry, pedrak square (also masculine noun), pigus exciting, reqwîrya v require, scrynk m grimace, sedhy v sink, stranj (also astranj) strange, stras m bottom (interior of boat), Swystir (also Pow Swyts) Switzerland, sym m monkey, tart m tart, telly v make a hole in, toll m hole, tredden m trio, tristans m sadness, troos’hës m foot (measure), ùncoth outlandish, ûnyvers m universe, yowynkneth m youth

More anecdotal story-telling

Here is a tragic tale of a picnic while boating on the River Thames. It comes from Tredden in Scath – that is, Three Men in a Boat – by Jerome K. Jerome (1889), as translated by Nicholas Williams.

… ny a dednas an scath yn fast bys in tyller nebes in dadn Enys an Symas, le may whrussyn ny tedna bys i’n ladn rag debry agan ly. Ny a dhetermyas debry an bowyn yêyn, hag ena ny a dhyscudhas fatell wrussyn ny ankevy dhe dhry kedhow vëth genen. Yth hevel dhybm nag o kebmys otham a gedhow bythqweth in oll ow bêwnans. Dre vrâs nyns eus kedhow worth ow flêsya, saw i’n termyn-na me a vynsa ry ragtho tra vëth in oll an bës.

Ny worama pes bës eus i’n ûnyvers, saw den vëth a wrella dry dhybm loas a gedhow i’n prës-na a alsa aga hafos kettep onen. Yth esof ow tevy dygabester indella pàn vo otham dhybm a neb tra na allama cafos.

Harrys inwedh a leverys y whre va ry bësow rag kedhow. Rial dra via mar teffa nebonen dos dhyn i’n prës-na ha cana kedhow ganso; ev a via rych lowr rag an remnant a’y dhedhyow.

Saw ny worama! Dre lycklod me ha Harrys kefrës a vensa kildedna dhyworth an ambos, wosa ny dhe gafos an kedhow. Yma den ow promyssya re in termyn a otham brâs, saw pàn vo va ow meras orth an dra moy adhewedhes, ev a wel nag yw valew an dra reqwîrys ow cortheby dhe’n ambos. Me a glôwas den unweyth, pàn esa ev owth ascendya meneth in Swystir, ow leverel y whre va ry an bës yn tien rag gwedren a goref. Ha pàn dheuth ev dhe grow bian may fedha coref gwerthys, ev a sordyas kedrydn, dre rêson y feu res dhodho tyly pymp frank rag botel a Bass. Ev a leverys an negys dhe vos bysmêr brâs, hag ev a screfas lyther dhe’n Times adro dhodho.

An fowt a gedhow a dhros tristans wàr an scath. Ny a dhebras agan kig bowyn heb leverel ger vëth. Yth hevelly agan bêwnans dhe vos dystyr ha dylês. Ny a remembras dedhyow agan yowynkneth ha hanaja. Ny a veu nebes lowenhës bytegyns gans an tart avallow, ha pàn dednas Jory cana pînaval in mes dhyworth goles an hanafer, ha’y rolya aberth in cres an scath, ny a gresy bos porpos dhe’n bêwnans wosa pùptra.

Yth eson ny oll agan try ow cara pînaval yn frâs. Ny a veras orth an pyctour wàr an cana, ha predery a’n sùgan. Ny a vinwharthas an eyl orth y gela, ha Harrys a wrug parusy lo.

Ena ny a whelas an gollel rag egery an cana. Ny a drailyas pùptra in mes a’n hanafer. Ny a sarchyas an seghyer. Ny a dednas in bàn estylednow stras an scath. Ny a gemeras pùptra in mes wàr an ladn ha’y shakya. Ny veu kefys egerel vëth.

I’n eur-na Harrys a assayas y egery gans kelyllyk, ha terry an gollel ha trehy y honen yn town. Jory a drias gweljow, ha’n gweljow a labmas in bàn ha namna wrussons y dhalhe. Pàn esons ow corra lysten adro dh’aga goly, me a whelas telly an cana gans pedn lybm an scath-hig, ha’n scath-hig a slynkyas ha’m tedna in mes inter scath ha gladn aberth in dew droos’hës a dhowr lîsak, ha’n cana a rolyas adro heb bos shyndys, ha terry hanaf tê.

Ena ny oll a sorras. Ny a gemeras an cana in mes wàr an ladn ha Harrys êth in bàn bys in gwel ha cafos men brâs lybm, ha me a dhewhelys dhe’n scath ha don an wern in mes anedhy. Jory a sensys an cana ha Harrys a sensys an tu lybm a’y ven. Me a gemeras an wern ha’y lyftya uhel i’n air, ha cùntell oll ow nerth ha dry dhe’n dor.

Hot cala Jory a selwys y vêwnans an jëdh-na. Yma va ow qwetha an hot lebmyn (remnant an hot in gwir) ha gordhuwher gwâv, pàn vo anowys an pîbow, ha’n vebyon ow terivas whedhlow ancresadow adro dhe’n perylyow a wrussons dos dredhans, yma Jory ow kemeres an hot dhe’n dor hag orth y dhysqwedhes adro, ha’n whedhel pigus yw derivys anowyth, ha’n gorlywans ow tevy kenyver termyn.

Harrys a scappyas heb tra vëth moy ès goly scav.

Wosa hedna me a gemeras an cana genama ow honen, ha’y vortholya gans an wern, erna veuma sqwith, ûsys ha clâv i’m colon. Ena Harrys a’n assayas.

Ny a’n cronkyas plat; ny a’n cronkyas pedrak. Ny a wrug y weskel bys in pùb form aswonys dhe’n vynsonieth – saw ny yllyn gwil toll ino. Ena Jory a’n assaultyas ha’y gnoukya dhe shâp mar goynt, mar stranj ha mar ùncoth y hacter, may kemeras own ha tôwlel an wern in kerdh. Ena ny oll a esedhas adro dhodho wàr an gwels ha meras orto.

Yth esa udn brall brâs dres top an cana o kepar ha scrynk leun ges, ha hedna a wrug dhyn conery mar vrâs, may codhas Harrys wàr an dra, y sêsya ha’y dôwlel abell aberth in cres an ryver. Ha’n cana a wrug sedhy kepar dell esen ny worth y gùssya ha’y volethy. Ny a ascendyas i’n scath ha revya dhyworth an tyller-na, ha ny wrussyn stoppya erna dheuthon ny dhe Maidenhead.

Notes

In mar teffa nebonen dos we are missing the expected ha before dos. It has been omitted on stylistic grounds in view of the following ha cana (where cana is not a verb-noun like dos, but the ordinary noun meaning ‘can, tin’).

Sarchya may mean either ‘search for something’ or ‘search something’.

The verbal adjective ûsys can mean ‘accustomed, customary’, ‘used, employed’ or ‘used up, exhausted’. In this passage we encounter the third meaning.

There are several instances in this passage of vëth meaning ‘any’ in an affirmative sentence. When no negative is involved Cornish is generally content to employ neb to mean either ‘some’ or ‘any’ as the context requires. Using vëth instead is more forceful, corresponding to English ‘any at all’.

Practys Êtek - Exercise Eighteen

In Three Men in a Boat how does the narrator go about making his anecdote an entertaining one? Answer in Cornish. Here are a few words that might be useful.

bÿsfel worldly wise, empathy m empathy, geseth m irony, gorlywa v exaggerate, gorthter m stubbornness, ha’y davas in y vogh tongue in cheek, hûmour m humour, kyfya v confide in, perseverens m perseverance, redyor m reader, wharthus ridiculous, whedhlor m narrator

Unaffected stem vowels in the inflected preterite tense

In Lesson Eight of Book Two we first learned that verbs which have a vowel in their verb-noun that has undergone affection restore the original vowel of the stem in the form of the inflected preterite ending in as. It will be useful to have a comprehensive checklist of these verbs.

STEM VOWEL A

dallath ‘begin’ and dybarth ‘separate, depart’ have alternative verb-noun forms dyberth and dalleth with vowels that have undergone affection, but the preterites are always dybarthas and dalathas

lebmel ‘jump’, leverel ‘say’, sevel ‘stand’ restore the original vowel in their alternative preterite forms labmas, lavaras, savas

pesky ‘feed’, preterite pascas

wherthyn ‘laugh’, preterite wharthas; the same applies to compounds folwherthyn ‘giggle’, gwenwherthyn ‘grin’, minwherthyn ‘smile’

STEM VOWEL O

ankevy ‘forget’, preterite ancovas

cregy ‘hang’, preterite crogas

dasserhy ‘rise from the dead’, preterite dassorhas

dedhwy ‘lay eggs’, preterite dodhwas

egery ‘open’, preterite egoras

kegy ‘cook’, preterite cogas

kelly ‘lose, miss’, preterite collas

kelmy ‘tie’, preterite colmas

kesky ‘admonish’, preterite coscas

lenky ‘swallow’, preterite loncas

lesky ‘burn’, preterite loscas

megy ‘smoke, stifle’, preterite mogas

pedry ‘rot’, preterite podras

perthy ‘bear’, preterite porthas; the same applies to compounds omberthy ‘balance (oneself)’ and treusperthy ‘transfer’, but treusperthas is also found

prevy ‘try (test), prove’, preterite provas

renky ‘snore etc’, preterite roncas

seny ‘sound, play (music etc)’, preterite sonas; the same applies to compound dasseny ‘echo’

serry ‘anger’, preterite sorras

telly ‘perforate’, preterite tollas

terry ‘break’, preterite torras; the same applies to compound goderry ‘interrupt (something)’

trehy ‘cut’, preterite trohas

Dasserghyans is a very important noun for all involved with the Cornish language. As well as meaning ‘resurrection’ it is also the Cornish name for the ‘Revival’.

Note that oy (as wy) ‘egg’ is already part of verb dedhwy. If we wish to say ‘lay one egg, two eggs, etc’, that is dedhwy unweyth, dywweyth, etc.

Occasionally you may encounter a verb that usually has preterite ending as employed with ys instead: govydnys in place of govydnas for example.

And it is important to realize that some verbs with affection in the verb-noun retain this affection in all forms of the preterite. For example, erhy ‘order’, preterite erhys. Other relatively common preterites of this type are derevys (derevel), fyllys (fyllel), gweskys (gweskel), tewys (tewel), tylys (tyly). As already noted, lebmel, leverel, sevel can jump in either direction. You will find these verbs in the broader checklist in Lesson Nine of all the most important verbs that employ preterite ending ys instead of ending as.

Practys Nawnjek - Exercise Nineteen

Change each of the following into the inflected I-form. And translate. For example, A’n provas ev? will become A’n prevys vy? Meaning ‘Did I prove it?’ As we are dealing here with I-forms, any stem vowel that is affected in the verb-noun will stay affected. If you are unsure about that, look back at Lesson One of Book Three for the affection pattern, there illustrated with the preterite tense of dallath.

Ny roncas hy. Ny vogas ev. A’n trohas hy? A’s loscas ev? A dhodhwas hy?

Vocabulary

Here are some more new words.

basket m basket, beler col cress, cawghwas m mean-spirited fellow, cay m quay, jetty (also railway platform), cùcùmysyk m gherkin, dygelmy v untie, gwydyla v wriggle, helygweyth m wicker, herdhya v push, shove, letys col lettuce, limaval m lime (fruit), pottys potted, pyckla v pickle, pyth stingy, mean, yeryk f chick(en)

Practys Ugans - Exercise Twenty

The Wind in the Willows recounts another boating picnic. The Water Rat welcomes his new friend Mole to join him.

“Gorta pols dhana!” yn medh an Logosen.

Ev a worras pedn an lovan dre vysow in y gay bian ha crambla in y doll avàn, ha wosa termyn cot ev a dhysqwedhas arta ow trebuchya in dàn basket tew a helygweyth.

“Herdh hedna in dadn dha dreys,” yn medh ev dhe’n Goodh’or orth y hedhes dhodho an scath ahës. Ena ev a dhygolmas an lovan ha dallath revya arta.

“Pandr’eus inho?” a wovydnas an Goodh’or ow qwydyla rag ewn ewl.

“Yma yeryk yêyn inho,” a worthebys an Logosen yn cot, “tavasyêynhàmyêynkigbowynyêyncùcùmysygowpycklysletysrolyowfrynkekbreghtanowbelerkigpottysdewasjynjyberdewaslimavaldowrsôda–“

“Ô, stop, stop!” a grias an Goodh’or in y joy. “Hèm yw re!”

“Esta ow predery hedna in gwir?” a wovydnas an Logosen yn sad. “Nyns yw hedna saw an pëth a wrama kemeres genef pùpprës wàr an viajys bian-ma; hag yma an bestas erel pùpprës ow leverel me dhe vos cawghwas pyth usy owth erbysy re veur.”

Now make out a list of things in Cornish that you would pack in your ideal picnic hamper. Don’t forget the mustard and a tin opener!

Notes

In the passage about the Water Rat’s picnic basket we find in dàn basket instead of in dadn vasket. All our evidence shows that historical Cornish was more flexible in matters of grammar and vocabulary than the prescriptions we generally find in modern grammars and coursebooks. But strict rules can still be set aside for good reason. In this particular case, b-alliteration in trebuchya and basket has been assured, subliminally enhancing our sense that the hamper is begh brâs, a big burden.

For variant inho alongside ino compare regular inhy with feminine reference.

The hamper’s contents in Cornish differ slightly from those of the original. In the English text we find ginger beer and lemonade, which in Cornish would be coref jynjyber and dewas lymon.

Practys Onen warn Ugans - Exercise Twenty One

Write an email in suitable Cornish to your neighbour explaining that a builder is coming next Tuesday to repair the stone wall (which you own 100%) between your two properties, and asking that the builder be able to access the wall from your neighbour’s side as well as from your own so he can complete the job properly. You are particularly concerned to have the ivy (idhyow) removed on the neighbour’s side, which is partly to blame for the damage.

**********

LESSON PYMP

LESSON FIVE

Constructions yw genef summarized and contrasted

We saw in Book One how dâ yw genef means ‘I like’ and gwell yw genef means ‘I prefer’, contrasting with gwell yw dhybm which means ‘it is better for me’. Demelsa said drog genef to her Head Teacher in Book Two, meaning ‘I’m sorry’ (apologizing); drog yw genef may also mean ‘I don’t like’. Likewise we can say poos yw genef gwil neppëth ‘I am reluctant to do something’.

With nouns we generally prefer to employ the ‘long’ forms of bos with preposition dhe. So we say yma dowt dhybm ‘I doubt’, yma edrek dhybm ‘I regret’, yma marth dhybm ‘I’m astonished’, yma own dhybm ‘I’m afraid’, yma sehes dhybm ‘I’m thirsty’, yma trest dhybm ‘I trust’, yma whans dhybm ‘I desire’. There are also the expressions yma govenek dhybm ‘I hope’ and yma otham dhybm ‘I need’. When these two are used with a verb-noun there is rarely any intervening preposition: the verb-noun is considered to be ‘in apposition’ to the hope or the need.

It is possible to employ forms of y’m beus as an alternative to the long form of bos with preposition dhe. So for example y’m beus govenek or me a’m beus govenek might be substituted for yma govenek dhybm. With marth, meth and own we can also use kemeres; for example, na gebmer own ‘don’t be afraid’.

A few nouns may be found with an yw genef construction – that is, employed (in this context) as if they were adjectives. The nouns in question are bern, cas ‘hatred’, edrek, màl, marth, meth. So bern yw genef means ‘I care about’ and cas yw genef means ‘I detest’; while yma marth dhybm, marth a’m beus, and marth yw genef are interchangeable – it is purely a matter of style.

Màl yw genef is a stronger alternative to my a garsa, and it often has a sense of ‘looking forward’ to doing something. Gans màl means ‘eagerly’.

Vocabulary

Here are some more new words.

Lesard The Lizard, Porth Du Poldhu Cove, sket straightaway, terras m terrace

Conversational Cornish

While you may increasingly be drawn to good writing in Cornish as you gain confidence in the language, you should not neglect your conversation skills. Whatever your own spoken register, you must be able to recognize a broad range of spoken idiom, so you can engage with as many people as possible.

Here is a conversation to get you in the mood.

Bertyl:

My yw syger sqwith.

Joana:

Me awedh.

Bertyl:

Pandr’yllyn ny gul?

Joana:

Nor’vy màn. Bùs me venja mos neb le.

Bertyl:

Py le?

Joana:

Nag oma sur. Me wor whans dhèm drîvya neb teller.

Bertyl:

Bargynnys! Gas ny dhe rôsya i’n carr.

Joana:

Sur! Sket! Ple fednyn ny mos?

Bertyl:

Martesen dhe’n mor?

Joana:

Fra na? Lesard pàr hap?

Bertyl:

Otta tybyans dâ. Hyllyn mos dhe’n âls in Porth Du.

Joana:

Devry! Me ell neyja i’n mor. Oja hedna, perna vytel i’n shoppa warn treth.

Bertyl:

Pò gwell vÿdh debry in Eglos Melan?

Joana:

Mar kell’ny sedha wàr neb terras.

Bertyl:

Lyckly bos êsy lowr.

Joana:

Pana dermyn dallath vorr?

Bertyl:

Mos heb let. Penn deg mynysen – vedhys parys?

Joana:

Certan! Otham vëth ma’s gwysca bykîny dadn bows vy.

Bertyl:

Otham kefrÿs a dowellow an treth.

Joana:

Ha calj dehen howl.

Bertyl:

Dog dha hot cala brâs.

Joana:

Kevys ew pùptra oll. Deus! Màl genam yn tien.

Bargydnys (literally ‘bargained’) is a colloquial way of saying ‘agreed’.

Phrases for conversation

Here are some expressions that are often useful in the flow of conversation.

dèr dyba’ I suppose

dèr hevel dhèm I think

dèr wodher of course

dowt vëth no doubt

dr’ew apert obviously

dr’ew da wetyas I expect

er y wu unfortunately

flows ha whedhlow rubbish

ges a reta you’re joking

ges vëth seriously

gwir glân quite right

ha ny o’cowsa by the way

lawl dèr rug vy kyns as I’ve said before

nag ew gwir poran not exactly

nag ew marth no wonder

neb gradh up to a point

pandra venta lawl? what do you mean?

th’ew govenek vy I hope [so]

wàr dha gàm steady on

wosta? you know

Practys Dew warn Ugans - Exercise Twenty Two

Make up a conversation between Bertyl and Joana that employs as many of the above phrases as you can manage. The phrases have been given in a very colloquial register, as they might be said by Joana. Some of them will need to be adapted, to the extent they are used by Bertyl.

More about inflected preterites: the you-singular form

Exercise Nineteen illustrated how the I-forms of the inflected preterite tense retain any affected vowel. This is also the case for the you-singular forms. But here there is also the challenge of incorporating s before the ending. This is frequently straightforward, as in a dhalethsys jy? ‘have you begun?’ But we must also note some special cases.

If the verb stem already ends in single s, then unless that s is preceded by a diphthong we add a further s (making a voiceless ss sound in speech). So we say, for example, a’n compossys jy ‘did you straighten it?’ but a gôwsys jy? ‘did you speak?’ If the verb stem ends in s followed by another consonant, this consonant is deleted before we add any further s. So we say, for example, a’n dessys jy? ‘did you learn it?’ In Lesson One of Book Three we noted the loss of r in debry, so we have a’n depsys jy? ‘did you eat it’ (along with regular devoicing of the consonant preceding the inserted s); and the loss of y in ponya, so we have a bonsys dy? ‘did you run there?’ An l or n will disappear in the same circumstances. So we say, for example, a’n tropsys jy? ‘did you bother him?’, a’n lymsys jy? ‘did you paint it?’ (lymna ‘paint’). But delyfrya (with its variants delyfra and delyvra) is irregular: we say a’n delyrfsys jy? ‘did you deliver it?’ We can note that w is written but not pronounced in a form such as a’n gelwsys jy? ‘did you call him?’ Finally, we should learn that an e is inserted when the verb stem ends in three consonants, as in ny wystelsys pùb fordh ‘you didn’t hedge your bets’ (gwystla ‘wager’). The verb stem of dampnya ends in four consonants. But y disappears as usual (dampna is anyway an alternative verb-noun), so we are left with three, to yield a’n dempensys? ‘did you condemn it?’

Practys Try warn Ugans Exercise Twenty Three

Convert the following preterite forms made with auxiliary gwil to the inflected preterite tense of the relevant verb in each case. Remember that with an inflected preterite we employ infixed pronouns.

A wrusta hy aswon? Ny wrusta aga gweles. A wrussys y dôwlel? A wrusta posa worto? Ny wrusta medra strait (‘aim straight’). A ny wrusta whythra an dra? A wrussys y lenwel. Ny wrusta cùsca. Ny wrussys whystra. A ny wrusta entra?

More revision of bos

We had the opportunity in Exercise One to revise six tenses of bos. Two more tenses are the future and the conditional.

The complete future tense of bos (which is also used optionally for timeless statements instead of a present tense) can be revised from Lesson Three of Book Two, though a vëdh was already introduced in Book One.

It will be convenient to remind yourself about the imperatives bëdh and bedhowgh at the same time, since these are identical to forms of the future tense.

The conditional tense of bos means ‘would be’, but it is only used when a sentence has conditional meaning. The tense of bos that means ‘would be’ in the sense ‘was going to be’ (future in the past) is the habitual imperfect tense. (There is no special idea of ‘habitualness’ when it is used in this way.) The conditional tense of bos can be revised from Lesson Seven of Book Three.

Practys Peswar warn Ugans - Exercise Twenty Four

How would you say the following in Cornish? Use tenses of bos wherever possible; use fatell to mean ‘that’.

Poldhu beach is always a good place for sunbathing and swimming. Today it will be full of people sunbathing and swimming. But Bertyl said that the beach would be very hot today. Joana agreed that Mullion would be a better place for lunch if they could sit on a terrace somewhere. Be cautious, both of you, about strong sun!

Quasi-verb pew ‘possess, own’

This is a contraction of old Cornish *py yw which meant ‘to whom is’. We may replace a’n jeves and a’s teves in affirmative statements and relative clauses with a bew when the meaning is ‘possess’ or ‘own’; but not when the sense is closer to ‘acquire’ or ‘get’. This a bew can take an infixed pronoun as its direct object, so a’n pew for instance will mean ‘[who] possesses / owns it’ (referring to a masculine noun) and a’s pew will mean ‘[who] possess(es) / own(s) it’ (referring to a feminine noun) or ‘[who] possess(es) / own(s) them’. We can likewise employ interrogative a bew? and negative ny / na bew.

Just as quasi-verb a res ‘have to’ (formed from res ‘necessity’) makes an imperfect a resa ‘had to’, a bew makes an imperfect a bewa ‘possessed / owned’, which works in the same way as a bew.

Practys Pymp warn Ugans - Exercise Twenty Five

Express these sentences using forms of pew instead of forms of y’m beus.

Ow henderow a’n jeves margh. Ow dama wydn a’s teva cath. Dha genderow – a’n jeves cath? Dha dhama wydn ny’s teva margh. Pyw yw an den a’n jeves margh?

Vocabulary

Here are some more new words. A lot of them. We are about to explore (in Cornish) the first chapter of one of the great novels of world literature. Reading the very best literature is the best way to gain a powerful vocabulary of your own.

abûsyans m abuse, afîna v refine (also decorate), alena from there, anathves immature, anawel f storm, anperfeth imperfect, anyagh unhealthy, anyen f instinct, Arctek Arctic, arhow pl treasury, asper harsh, asperyta m harshness, aswonvos m consciousness, attendyans m attention, balad m ballad, bedha v dare, beggya v beg, bejeth m face, brawagh m terror, Breten Veur Britain, bû boo, cader vrehek f armchair, câken f cake, calmynjy m calm, camhensek wicked, cledhek clumsy, awkward, clehy m ice, company m company, corflan f churchyard, coton m cotton, covva f hiding-place, cowethasek sociable (also social), creatur m creature, criv raw, crobm numb (also bent), crog f gallows, cruel cruel, cruny v accumulate, crygh m frill, dall blind, denledhyas m murderer, deraglans m invective, chiding, despît m insult, devera goos bleed, draggya v drag, dydhel leafless, dydhyweth unending, dyflas distasteful, nasty, dygoweth solitary, dyowles f she-devil, dysawor unsavoury, dyscler dim, dyspêr m despair, dyspûtya v dispute, dywodhaf intolerable, dywoskes bleak, emôcyon m emotion, emprour m emperor, Enesow Heleth The Hebrides, esedhva f seat, falja v split, fara m conduct, floghva f nursery, forsâkya v forsake, abandon, frêga v shred, fuglien m fiction, gal m villain, ‘rat’, ganow m mouth, glesyn m lawn, godros v threaten, gorhal m ship, grugys m zone (also belt), gwalha v glut, gwedrek glassy, henwhedhel m legend, hevelepter m similarity, hùmblya v humble, idnyal wild, rugged, i’n contrary part on the contrary, intendya v intend, keles v conceal, kemeres with take care, kernek horned, kevrînek mysterious (also secret), keynvor m ocean, kigek fleshy, kilgans m crescent, kynyewel v dine, lâss m lace, levna v iron, liesplek multiple, loven f couch, sofa, mabmyk f mum(my), mamma, madama f madam, mageres f nurse (of children), menow’hy v frequent, menscrif m inscription (on stone), mênyng m meaning, morrep m coast(line), muskegy v madden, mûtya v mope, sulk, myrgh f girl, myrour m mirror, naturek natural, nerv m nerve, north m north (also adjective), offendya v offend, ola v cry, weep, omassaya v exercise, omberthy v balance (oneself), padnweyth m textiles, drapery, passyon m passion, penarth f promontory, penrîn m cape, naze, pentir m headland, pleg m fold, plynchya v flinch (also wince), presens m presence, prysklowek f shrubbery, pùnyshya v punish, pystyga v injure, pystyk m injury, qwarel m pane, ragleverys (afore)said, redyans m reading, Rom Rome, scolkyores f female sneak, scolvaw m schoolboy, scolvêster m schoolmaster, scruthus horrible, sensa v sense, feel, sentement m sentiment, serhoges f female dependant, servysy pl servants, sherp sharp (often figuratively), skeusek shadowy, soth m south (also adjective), sowthanas v bewilder, stair m stair, strik fast, prompt, sùffrans m suffering, tardh m burst, tarosvan m phantom, tewedhak weather-beaten, tormentya v torment, bully, treys crowsys cross-legged, Tùrk m Turk, tydn painful (also tight), udnyk solitary (also unique), uja v howl, ùttra v utter, wàr verr lavarow in short, in a word, yêth plain f prose, yey m ice, yêynder m cold, yùrl m earl

Cansvledhen is an alternative form of cansbledhen.

The verb-noun dyffres is employed as an ordinary masculine noun meaning ‘protection’.

We may use kyns ès in the sense ‘rather than’ as well as ‘before’.

Plural lyfryow has alternative forms lyfrow and lyvrow.

Mes a fordh means ‘astray’. It forms a prepositional phrase mes a fordh a ‘out of the way of’.

Nebonen a wrug ûsya and nebonen a ûsyas followed by a verb-noun are ways of saying ‘someone was accustomed’ to do(ing) something.

Wàr an dallath ‘at first’ is an alternative to more common (w)orth an dallath and wostallath.

Psychological intensity in fiction

An novel Jane Eyre gans Charlotte Brontë (1847) yw whêldro in fuglien an yêth plain. Ot an kensa chaptra. Oll an lyver re beu trailys dhe Gernowek gans Nicholas Williams.

Nyns esa chauns vÿth a gerdhes an jëdh-na. In gwir ny re beu ow qwandra i’n brysklowek dhydel dres our i’n myttyn; saw warlergh kydnyow (pàn na’s teva hy company, Mêstres Reed a wre kynyewel yn avarr) gwyns yêyn an gwâv a dhros ganso cloudys mar dewl, ha glaw mar lybm, na ylly bos qwestyon a omassaya wàr ves.

Pës dâ en vy adro dhe hedna: bythqweth ny wrug kerdhow hir ow flêsya, spessly dohajëdh yêyn: uthyk genef o dos tre i’n tewlwolow criv, crobm ow besias ha’m treys, ow holon trist’hës dre dheraglans Bessie agan mageres, ha hùmblys der an aswonvos a’m bos gwadnha i’m corf ès Elîza, Jowan ha Georgiana Reed.

Yth o an flehes ragleverys, Elîza, Jowan ha Georgiana, cùntellys adro dh’aga mabmyk i’n parleth efan: yth esa hy ow crowedha wàr loven ryb an tan, ha gans hy flehes meurgerys in hy herhyn (nag esa naneyl owth omlath nag owth ola i’n prÿs-na) hy a hevelly lowen yn tien. Hy a’m degeas in mes a’n bùsh-na in udn leverel “Drog yw genef dha sensy abell dhywortans; saw erna wryllyf clôwes dhyworth Bessie, hag erna yllyf dyscudha dhyworth dùstuny ow lagasow ow honen, te dhe vos ow whelas yn freth dhe dhysqwedhes gnas moy cowethasek ha wordhy a vyrgh vian, manerow moy jolyf ha dynyak – wàr verr lavarow, neb tra scaffa, moy gwiryon ha naturek – res yw dhybm dha dhegea in mes a’n gwiryow intendys yn udnyk rag flehes contentys ha lowen.”

“Pandra lever Bessie dhe vos gwrÿs genef?” me a wovydnas.

“Jane, ny garaf pobel argya pò falja blew; ha wàr neb cor yma neppÿth dyflas ow longya dhe vyrgh vian ow tyspûtya indelha gans pobel cotha agessy hy honen. Bÿdh esedhys in neb tyller; hag erna vy parys dhe gôwsel geryow plesont, gwra tewel.”

Yth esa rom hawnsel ryb an rom esedha ha me a slynkyas ajy ino. Ena yth esa lyverva; heb let me a gafas lyver inhy, ha me ow kemeres with y fedha leun a byctours. Me a ascendyas bys in esedhva an fenester; in udn gùntell ow threys in dadnof, me a esedhas treys crowsys kepar ha Tùrk; warlergh tedna an groglen a goton rudh tew ogas dhe dhegës yn tien, yth en vy kildednys dywweyth.

Adhyhow dhybm yth esa plegow a badnweyth cogh ow tegea ow golok; aglêdh yth esa qwarels cler a weder, hag y worth ow gwetha rag an jorna trist a vis Du, saw heb y geles orthyf. Traweythyow pàn esen ow trailya folednow ow lyver, me a whythras semlant a’n dohajëdh yêyn-na. Abell ny welyn tra vÿth ma’s nywl ha cloudys gwydn; moy ogas yth esa glesyn glëb ha prysk tewedhak, ha glaw ow scubya in kerdh yn whyls dhyrag gwyns trist ha hir.

Me a dhewhelys dhe’m lyver: Istory a Ÿdhyn Breten Veur gans Tobmas Bewick; dre vrâs nyns o bern dhybm an text pryntys, saw i’n raglavar yth esa nebes folednow na yllyn vy, kynth en vy flogh, heb aga merkya. An re-na o an folednow ow côwsel a drigva ÿdhyn an mor; an “carygy ha’n penarthow idnyal” mayth esa tregys an ÿdhyn; morrep Norgagh, gans oll y enesow dhyworth an tyller pelha dhe’n soth, an Lyndenes pò Penrîn, bys in Pentir an North –

“May ma Keynvor an North in troyllyow brâs

Ow pryjyon ’dro dhe’n enesow noth ha trist

A Thûlê pelha; hag ow qweskel ma pùpprÿs

anawel Heleth tardhow Mor a West.”

Ny yllyn heb merkya naneyl an derivas ow tùchya âlsyow dyfeth Laplond, Sybêrya, Spytsbergen, Nova Zemlya, Îslond, Grênlond, gans “hës dydhyweth an Grugys Arctek, ha’n tiryow forsâkys-na a spâss dywoskes – an arhow-na a rew hag a ergh, mayth yw gwelyow tew a glehy, crunys warbarth dres cansvledhydnyow a wâv, gwrÿs menydhyow wàr venydhyow a yey gwedrek, oll adro dhe Bedn Êhel an North, hag y owth encressya liesplek asperyta an yêynder dywodhaf.” A’n tyleryow marow-gwydn me a formyas ow thybyans ow honen: skeusek, avell oll an prederow hanter-convedhys usy ow neyja yn tewl der empydnyon an flehes, saw coynt ha marthys bytegyns. Yth o an geryow-ma in dallath an lyver kelmys gans an pyctours in folednow wàr aga lergh, hag yth esen ow ry mênyng dhe’n garrek udnyk ow sevel in bàn in mor a dodnow ewon; dhe’n scath terrys ha hy gesys wàr âls idnyal; dhe’n loor scruthus yêyn ow meras dre gloudys frêgys orth gorhal trogh ow sedhy i’n very tor’-na.

Ny worama pana sentement esa ow menow’hy an gorflan gosel dhygoweth gans an men bedh ha menscrif warnodho; hy dyw wedhen, hy gorwel isel ha fos trogh adro dhedhy; ha’n kilgans nowyth derevys in udn dheclarya an termyn dhe vos gordhuwher.

An dhew worhal in calmynjy wàr dhowr syger, me a’s cresys dhe vos tarosvanow a’n mor.

Me a bassyas dres an pyctour a’n jowl ow fastya sagh dorn an lader adhelergh dhodho: skyla a euth dhybm o hedna.

Indelha kefrës o an dra dhu ha kernek esedhys y honen oll wàr garrek, ow meras orth rûth i’n pellder hag y adro dhe grog.

Yth esa whedhel dhe redya in kenyver pyctour; y kevrînek yn fenowgh dhe’m ùnderstondyng anathves ha’m emôcyons anperfëth, saw a les whath pùpprÿs poran kepar ha’n whedhlow a wre Bessie derivas traweythyow gordhuwher i’n gwâv, pàn wharva hy cher dhe vos contentys; ha pàn o drÿs gensy hy bord levna bys in olas an floghva, ha hy dhe ry cubmyas dhyn esedha adro dhodho. Hedre vedha hy ow levna cryhow lâss Mêstres Reed, hag ow tyghtya lystednow hy happys nos, hy a wre maga agan attendyans gans storys a gerensa hag a aventur kemerys dhyworth henwhedhlow an weryn; dhyworth baladys erel pò (dell wrug vy dyscudha lies bledhen wosa hedna) mes a’n folednow a Pamela ha Henry, Yùrl Moreland.

Gans lyver Bewick wàr ow glin me o lowen; lowen dhe’n lyha i’m fordh vy. Nyns o own dhybm a dra vÿth marnas bos goderrys ow redyans, ha hedna a dheuth re scon. Daras rom an hawnsel a egoras.

“Bû! A Vadama Mûtya!” a grias Jowan Reed. Ena ev a cessyas: dell hevelly, yth o an rom gwag dhyragtho.

“Ple an jowl usy hy!” yn medh ev in udn bêsya. “Lizzie, Georgie!” ow kelwel dh’y wheryth, “Nyns usy Jane obma. Leverowgh dhe vabmyk hy bos ponys in mes bys i’n glaw – dysawor-vest!”

“Dâ o an groglen dhe vos tednys genef,” me a brederys, ha me ow whansa yn freth na wre va dyscudha ow hovva; ha ny vynsa Jowan Reed hy dyscudha y honen; nyns o va uskys ow tùchya gweles na convedhes; saw Elîza a worras hy fedn ajy orth an daras ha leverel dystowgh –

“Yma hy wàr esedhva an fenester heb mar, a Jack.”

Me a dheuth in mes heb let, rag yth esen ow crena in udn bredery a vos draggys in mes gans an Jack ragleverys.

“Pandra garses?” me a wovydnas gans meth cledhek.

“Lavar, ‘pandra garsowgh, a Vêster Reed yonk?’” a veu an gorthyp. “Me a garsa te dhe dhos obma”; hag ev a esedhas in cader vrehek in udn dhysqwedhes gans y dhorn yth o res dhybm dos nes ha sevel dhyragtho.

Scolvaw peswardhek bloodh o Jowan Reed; ev o peder bledhen cotha agesof rag nyns en vy ma’s deg bloodh. Brâs ha tew o va rag y oos; y grohen o melen anyagh; tew o y frigow ha’y anow in bejeth ledan; y esely o poos ha brâs o y dreys ha’y dhêwla. Ev a ûsyas gwalha y honen orth an bord, ha hedna a ros dhodho lagas dyscler syger ha bohow kigek. I’n termyn-na ev a dalvia bos i’n scol; saw y vabmyk a wrug y dhegemeres tre rag mis pò dew vis, “dre rêson a’y yêhes diantel”. Mêster Miles, an scolvêster, a leverys y whre va dâ lowr a pe nebes le a gâkys hag a whegednow danvenys dhodho gans y vabm; saw ny garsa colon an vabm recêva breus mar asper. Hy a gresy i’n contrary part an tybyans moy afînys ev dhe vos mar velen i’n fâss dre rêson a’y vos ow studhya re gales ha martesen dre rêson a’y hireth dhe vos in tre.

Ny gara Jowan a vabm na’y wheryth nameur, saw me o hâtys ganso. Pàn wre va ow thormentya ha’m pùnyshya, nyns o dywweyth pò tergweyth i’n seythen, nag unweyth pò dywweyth pùb dëdh kyn fe; saw pùb termyn heb cessya. Yth esa kenyver nerv i’m corf ow perthy own anodho, ha pùb part a’m kig wàr ow eskern a blynchya peskytter may whre va dos nes dhybm. Yn fenowgh me a vedha sowthenys der an euth a wre va inspîrya inof, rag ny’m bedha dyffres vëth ragtho, be va ow codros poken ow cronkya. Nyns o an servysy parys dhe offendya aga mêster yonk ha’m scodhya vy wàr y bydn ev, hag yth o Mêstres Reed dall ha bodhar i’n negys: ny wrug hy bythqweth y weles orth ow gweskel nag orth ow despîtya, kyn whre va an dhew-na traweythyow in hy fresens, saw moy menowgh adhelergh dhedhy.

Der ûsadow me o gostyth dhe Jowan hag ytho me a dheuth nes dh’y jair. Ev a spênas teyr mynysen in udn herdhya in mes y davas orthyf mar bell dell ylly heb pystyga y wredhyow. Me a wodhya y whre va gweskel yn scon, ha kynth esen ow perthy own a’n bobm, me a bredery a’n hager-semlant dyflas a hedna neb a vydna y ry dhybm. Ny worama mar qwrug ev redya an tybyans-na wàr ow fâss, rag adhesempys heb côwsel ger ev a’m gweskys yn uskys hag yn crev. Me a drebuchyas, ha pàn wrug vy omberthy ow honen arta me a gerdhas udn stap pò dew dhyworth y jair.

“Hèn yw rag dha fara taunt in udn wortheby mabmyk agensow,” yn medh ev, “ha dre rêson te dhe slynkya rag keles dha honen adhelergh dhe groglednow hag awos an wolok wàr dha fâss dyw vynysen alebma, te scolkyores!”

Awos me dhe vos ûsys dhe abûsyans Jowan Reed, ny brederys vy bythqweth a’y wortheby; bern o dhybm yn udnyk fatl’yllyn perthy an bobm neb a vydna sewya an despît.

“Pandr’esta ow qwil adhelergh dhe’n groglen?” ev a wovydnas.

“Yth esen ow redya.”

“Dysqwa dhybm an lyver.”

Me a dhewhelys dhe’n fenester ha’y gerhes alena.

“Nyns eus cubmyas vëth dhis kemeres agan lyfrow ny; Mabmyk a lever te dhe vos serhoges; ny’th eus mona vÿth. Ny wrug dha das gasa mona vÿth genes; y talvia dhis mos ha beggya, kyns ès bêwa obma gans flehes den jentyl kepar ha ny, ha debry an keth prejyow avellon, ha bos gwyskys in dyllas prenys dhis gans agan mabm. Lebmyn, me a vydn desky dhis heb sarchya in estyll ow lyfrow vy: rag me a’s pew; me a bew oll an chy, pò me a’n cav kyns pedn nebes bledhydnyow. Kê ha sav ryb an daras, mes a fordh a’n myrour hag a’n fenestry.”

Me a wrug indelha, rag ny wodhyen wàr an dallath pandr’o intendys ganso; saw pàn wrug vy y weles ow lyftya an lyver, y vedra ha sevel parys dh’y dôwlel, der anyen me a blynchyas adenewen gans cry a own; ny veuma strik lowr bytegyns. An lyver a veu tôwlys ha me a veu gweskys dredho. Me a godhas in udn gnoukya ow fedn warbydn an daras hag orth y drehy. Goos a dheveras dhywar an pystyk. Sherp o an pain; ow brawagh o skydnys dhyworth an poynt uhelha; emôcyons erel a entras i’m brës.

“Te yw maw cruel ha camhensek!” me a leverys. “Te yw kepar ha denledhyas – te yw kepar ha mêster kêthyon – te yw kepar hag emprours Rom!”

Redys o genef Istory Rom gans Goldsmith, ha formys genef o ow thybyansow ow tùchya Nêrô, Calygùla, hag erel. Pelha me a brederys dhybmo ow honen hevelepterow na wrussen bythqweth ùttra yn uhel.

“Pandra! pandra!” ev a grias. “A wrug hy leverel hedna dhybm? A wrussowgh why hy clôwes, a Elîza ha Georgiana? Me a vydn y dherivas dhe Vabmyk. Saw kyns oll –”

Ev a bonyas strait bys dhybm. Me a’n sensas ow sêsya ow blew ha’m scoodh; yth esa ev owth omlath gans creatur in dyspêr. In gwiryoneth me a welas ino turont ha denledhyas. Me a glôwas badna pò dew a woos ow tevera dhywar ow fedn ha wàr ow hodna wàr nans. Me a glôwas inof sùffrans tydn, ha me a’n recêvas in maner vuskegys. Ny worama yn tâ pandra wrug vy gans ow dêwla, saw ev a’m gelwys “Myrgh gal! Myrgh gal!” hag a'n ujas yn uhel. Yth esa gweres in y ogas. Elîza ha Georgie o gyllys rag kerhes Mêstres Reed, neb esa a-ugh an stairys; ena hy a dheuth bys i’n tyller ha Bessie hag Abbot, hy maghteth hy, worth hy sewya. Ny a veu separâtys an eyl dhyworth y gela. Me a glôwas geryow –

“A Dhuw! A Dhuw! Ass yw hy dyowles vian dhe assaultya Mêster Jowan indelha!”

“A welas den vëth bythqweth passyon a’n par-na?”

Ena Mêstres Reed a addyas –

“Kemerowgh hy in kerdh dhe’n chambour rudh, ha gwrewgh hy degea ino in dadn alwheth.” Heb let peswar dorn a’m sêsyas hag y a’m dug an stairys in bàn.

The countries and regions that Jane Eyre mentions are easy enough to recognize: Grênlond Greenland, Îslond Iceland, Laplond Lapland, Norgagh Norway, Nova Zemlya Novaya Zemlya, Spytsbergen Spitzbergen (Svalbard), Sybêrya Siberia. The Roman emperors she mentions are spelled Nero and Caligula in the original Latin. Thule is the most northerly location mentioned in ancient literature, though its precise identification is uncertain.

Notes

We find all three words for ‘ice’ in this passage. The literal meaning of rew is ‘frost’, but it has become the ordinary word for ‘ice’ as well in everyday Cornish. Yey (which underlies the adjective yêyn) can likewise mean frost or ice according to context. Clehy always means ice, and is most frequently encountered in the sense ‘icicle(s)’. It is derived from clogh in reference to the tinkling of such ‘ice bells’.

Some pronounce the last syllable of anperfeth, dyfeth, perfeth with a long vowel, and they may then be spelled anperfëth, dyfëth, perfëth. On the other hand, some pronounce kyfeth with a diphthong in the second syllable, and it may then be spelled kyfeyth.

In aswonvos a’m bos gwadnha ‘consciousness of my being weaker’ is equivalent to an indirect statement construction such as aswonvos fatell en vy gwadnha, aswonvos ow bos gwadnha, aswonvos y bosaf gwadnha, aswonvos my dhe vos gwadnha, all of which would be possible alternatives. Likewise dre rêson a’y vos ow studhya re gales later in the passage.

We learned in Lesson Thirteen of Book Two that a compound preposition like dre rêson is followed directly by an ordinary noun, making a genitive construction, but is linked to a verb-noun or pronoun by preposition a. This is not an absolute rule; a genitive construction tends to be avoided when it would contain a possessive pronoun because that structure is very much associated with an adjectival phrase. In this passage we find dre rêson a’y yêhes and dre rêson a’y hireth.

Hedre vedha is an instance of the imperfect (indicative) tense replacing the imperfect subjunctive, which is not uncommon in accounts of past events. The preterite tense is also occasionally found. But hedre can never be followed by any form of bos beginning with a vowel. We find the same substitution of imperfect indicative for imperfect subjunctive in peskytter may whre.

With ple an jowl ‘where the devil’ displacing straightforward pleth ‘where’ before usy, compare pyw a’n (an) jowl discussed in Lesson Ten of Book Three.

Ny re beu ow qwandra i’n brysklowek dhydel dres our i’n myttyn illustrates the point made in Lesson Three. The English original is ‘We had been wandering, indeed, in the leafless shrubbery an hour in the morning’ – particle re emphasizes completion: the meaning here is not *we have been wandering for an hour (and are wandering still). Originally particle re was used with either the preterite or the pluperfect tense of a verb. But the Cornish plupefect took on exclusively conditional meaning by the end of the Middle Ages; so today we call it the conditional tense. Archaically in higher registers we do occasionally encounter re used with the conditional as if the sense were still pluperfect. In everyday Cornish it is preferable to avoid re bia. When saying re beu, think of it as meaning ‘was / were (and now that’s over)’, rather than either ‘has / have been’ or ‘had been’ specifically.

Tardh in the context of the sea (tardh mor) means a ‘breaker’. The language of Jane’s book of birds is highly poetical: take tardhow Mor a West ‘the Atlantic breakers’ as the subject of the verb gweskel, with anawel Heleth ‘the Hebridean storm’ (that is, ‘the stormy Hebrides’) as the direct object.

The phrase wàr neb cor has been used to translate ‘besides’ of the original; this idea is more commonly expressed nowadays as ‘anyway’. The use of the Cornish phrase in this manner is modern; in our historical texts we only find it used to reinforce a negative in the sense ‘at all’ (Lesson Ten of Book Two).

Practys Whe warn Ugans - Exercise Twenty Six

In pana vaner usy an whedhlores, Jane Eyre, orth hy fresentya hy honen der an kensa chaptra-ma? Pan kensa breus a’gas beus anedhy? Ha pan argraf usy Jane ow qwil warnowgh a’n bobel erel i’n chy? Gwrewgh gortheby, moyha gallowgh, in Kernowek.

Saying ‘immediately’

Dystowgh is ‘immediately’, ‘straightaway’, ‘at once’; but there are many other ways to express approximately the same idea. Some you already know.

adhesempys sense of abruptness

adhystowgh reinforced form of dystowgh

desempys sense of abruptness

dewhans sense of eagerness / expeditiousness

dyson sens of ‘without another word’

heb let sense of nothing getting in the way

heb let na strech sense of no obstacle or delay

heb lettya sense of nothing getting in the way

kettoth ha’n ger sense of no sooner said than done

kyns ès hedhy sense of diligence without delay

mes a dhorn / dhornow sense of no further thought or discussion

scon sense of being the next thing to be done

sket sense of ‘headlong’

toth brâs, toth dâ (totta), toth men sense of speed

uskys sense of briskness

wàr not sense of instant action

wàr nûk sense of instant reaction

wharê sense of ‘after a very short time’

Scon is often taken as equivalent to English ‘soon’, but it has a broader range of meaning, including also ‘quickly’ as well as ‘immediately’. To say ‘soon’ unambiguously you can say a verr spÿs (also a verr speyss).

Practys Seyth warn Ugans - Exercise Twenty Seven

Write an email in suitable Cornish to a neighbour who was burning wet leaves in his garden yesterday (Sunday) afternoon. You’re slightly asthmatic; thick smoke was blowing into your own garden so you couldn’t go out and enjoy the sunshine; the air was bad in your house too, even with the doors and windows shut; you were coughing a lot in the night.

You will need asthmatek ‘asthmatic’ and passa v ‘cough’.

**********

LESSON WHE

LESSON SIX

Vocabulary

Here are the Cornish names of some birds.

awhesyth m lark, bargos m buzzard, bran f crow, bran dre f rook, bran rudhyk (also palores) f chough, casek coos f woodpecker, chawk m jackdaw, chîcok m & f house martin, cornwhylen f lapwing, cryssat (also tygry) m kestrel, dowryar f coot, fesont m pheasant, golvan chy m house sparrow, golvan ke m dunnock, grib m grebe, gwednal f swallow, gwednal dhu f swift, gwradnen f wren, hoos gwyls m mallard, kegyn f jay, kerhyth f heron, kyddaw m guillemot, melenek m greenfinch, molgh dhu f blackbird, molgh dowr f dipper, molgh loos f song thrush, morvran f cormorant, owrdynk m goldfinch, pedn paly m blue tit, pednglow brâs m great tit, perthuan f tawny owl, piasen f magpie, pôpa (also nath) m puffin, pùscador mytern m kingfisher, rudhak m robin, scowl m kite, sethor m gannet, stenor brith m pied wagtail, trojen f starling, tynk m chaffinch, ûla gwydn m barn owl

You already know goodh from Book One; gùlan from Book Two; cudhan and swàn from Book Three.

Hoos can be used loosely for any duck; ûla for any owl.

A toy kite is not scowl, but either sarf neyja or bargos paper.

Practys Eth warn Ugans - Exercise Twenty Eight

Gwrewgh derivas adro dhe’n tyleryow ha’n termynyow may whrussowgh why aspia pò clôwes an lies edhen-ma.

Plural of nouns ending in as

Most nouns ending in as have a plural form ending in asow. But a few make their plural with osow instead, and you should be careful to learn the nouns in question. So far we have encountered dewas (plural dewosow), gwyras (plural gwyrosow), prias (plural priosow), tavas (plural tavosow). For a few nouns there are parallel plurals in asow and osow. Vowel harmony is probably responsible for cowosow competing with cowasow. Plural gwyscosow is likely by analogy.

Vocabulary

Here are some more new words.

awayl m gospel, bardhek bardic, covath m memory, record, devar m duty, dyscas m lesson (also doctrine), ewhias m raid, fùndacyon m foundation, gradhegy v grade, gwers f verse, hockya v hesitate, larjes m generosity, warden m warden, yêthor m linguist

The verb-noun dallath is employed as an ordinary masculine noun meaning ‘beginning’.

More about Caradar

In 2017 Nicholas Williams recorded two podcast articles about Caradar. You can find the audio files on the lovinglivingcornish website (Williams 65 and 66). Here is the text of the first of these recordings.

Arthur Saxon Dennett Smith a veu genys in Sussex in mil eth cans eth deg try. Ev o yêthor fest skentyl. Kyns oll ev a dhescas Kembrek ha screfa lyver rag dyscoryon henwys Welsh Made Easy, lyver a werthas fest dâ. Ena ev a omsettyas dhe dhesky Kernowek hag omdava gans Nance. Gans gweres Cornish for All ev a dhescas Kernowek hag a veu recêvys in Gorseth Kernow avarr in bledhydnyow deg warn ugans gans an hanow bardhek Caradar.

Orth dallath an bledhydnyow deg warn ugans yth esa Caradar ow tesky tavosow arnowyth in Scol Blundell in Tiverton, Pow Densher. Ena ev a dhetermyas ry classys Kernowek avês dhe’n cors ûsys. Rag y dhyscasow Caradar a screfas lyver bian henwys Lessons in Spoken Cornish, lyver may feu pymp cans copy gwerthys anodho.

In mil naw cans try deg try Caradar a dheuth dhe drega in Kernow hag a restras classys gordhuwher ena hag inwedh ev a dhalathas lyver termyn in Kernowek henwys Kernow, a veu peswardhek nyver anodho dyllys. Warlergh nebes bledhydnyow res veu dhe Garadar gasa Kernow dre rêson y vabm dhe vos clâv, saw ev a dhyllas y Awayl herwyth Sen Mark in mil naw cans try deg whegh. Teyr bledhen warlergh hedna ev a dhyllas y lyver moyha a bris Cornish Simplified. Rag an kensa prÿs dhia bàn dhalathas an dasserghyans Kernowek yth esa lyver a vynsa ry dhe dhyscoryon fùndacyon gramer an tavas dhyworth an dallath in dyscasow gradhegys.

Caradar a dhyllas dew drailyans aral i’n bledhydnyow dêwgans, Nebes Whethlow Ber ha Whethlow an Seyth Den Fur a Rom. Y drailyans hirha bytegyns o Trystan hag Ysolt, ober a lavuryas ev warnodho hag ev wàr dhevar avell Warden Ewhiasow Air pò ‘Air Raid Warden’ i’n Secùnd Gwerryans an Bÿs. Trailyans in gwersyow Kernowek yw Trystan hag Ysolt a whedhel Frynkek Coth cùntellys avarr i’n ugansves cansvledhen gans an scolor Joseph Bédier.

Smith a verwys in mil naw cans ha hanter-cans kyns ès ev dhe golenwel Trystan hag Ysolt. Y feu an lyver dyllys an nessa bledhen dre larjes y wedhowes avell covath dh’y gour tremenys. Yn fenowgh ny wre Caradar acordya gans Nance adro dhe neb poynt i’n Kernowek Udnys saw pùpprës Caradar a wre omry dhodho. Caradar a ylly screfa ha côwsel Kernowek heb hockya hag ev, moy ès ken den vÿth martesen, a dhysqwedhas fatell ylly an tavas Kernowek bos dasserhys.

‘Nance’ is Robert Morton Nance, the author of Cornish for All published in 1929.

The verb omsettya literally means to ‘set oneself’. Used with prepositons wàr and warbydn the sense is ‘attack’. With preposition dhe the meaning is ‘set about (doing something)’.

The original Cornish titles of Caradar’s books are all in the spelling system that had been developed for revived Cornish by Nance. It is known as Unified Cornish. Originally this was Nance’s name for revived Cornish itself, in the form he had systematized; but since 1987, when Nance’s spelling largely fell out of use, the name has become associated almost exclusively with that orthography. The titles in Standard Cornish are Awayl herwyth Sèn Mark, Nebes Whedhlow Berr, Whedhlow an Seyth Den Fur a Rom, Tristan hag Isolt.

Vocabulary

Here are some more new words.

abma v kiss, avow m confession, cabester m halter, casa v hate, châcya v chase, colmen f knot, coveytya v covet, cùhudha v accuse, dalhen f grasp, dre wall by accident, dren m thorn, dreys col briars, elhas alas, flûr m deck, golya v sail, gordhya v worship, grêlyn m & f horse pond, gwredhya v take root, hebasca f comfort, ladha v kill, lêsa v spread, lÿs f court (of a lord), mêstry m mastery, omajer m vassal, omdhevas orphan, scoren f branch, servont m servant, splander m brightness, traita v betray, Tyntajel Tintagel Castle, uthycter m dreadfulness

Abma is optionally, but very commonly, followed by dhe rather than a direct object.

Gweth ‘worse’ only occurs in high registers of Cornish. In everyday language we say lacka.

The old word leouta ‘loyalty’ is mostly confined to the exclamation re’m leouta! ‘upon my word’. It has an irregular pronunciation, as if it were spelled ‘lawta’.

Tristan hag Isolt

Here is an extract from Caradar’s Tristan hag Isolt. It is taken from Part 4: An Dewas Kerensa, lines 1739 to 1852. Tristan of Lyonesse has been tasked with bringing Isolt of Ireland to marry Mark of Cornwall. But Tristan and Isolt fall in love while still aboard ship when Brangyen, Isolt’s maid, carelessly allows the pair to drink the love potion meant for Isolt and King Mark on their wedding night. Caradar’s verse employs the seven syllable line that we find in the traditional Cornish poetry of the late mediaeval corpus. But his rhyme schemes are more varied. Here they are summarized by marginal letters.

Arta y whrug an gorhal

golya tro ha Tyntajel.

ABABCDCDAA

Dhe Tristan yth hevelly

kepar ha pàn ve dreysen

saworek prest ow telly

y grohen gans lies dren.

I’n golon yth o gwredhyes crev

ha lêsys hy scorennow

adro dhe Isolt hag ev

kepar ha tynn-golmennow

oll y vrÿs orth y gelmy,

kefrÿs y dhesîr, orty hy.

AABBCCBDD

Y teuth dh’y vrÿs an preder:

“Whath vilha ov, ow breder

Gondwyn, Denwalen, Androw

ha Gwenlon, my a’n avow,

ès dell leversowgh nefra

pàn wrussowgh ow hùhudha

a goveytya rêwl an pow.

Nyns yw rêwl a goveytyaf,

saw neppÿth gweth a vynnaf.

AABBCCDD

“Ow êwnter, neb a’m caras

pàn esen flogh omdhevas,

a’m caras wosa henna

pàn êth i’n scath alena

avell y vab y honen

dell lever kettep onen,

hag a’m mentênas pòr lel

pùb eur oll in Tyntajel.

AABBCC

“Elhas! prag na wrussys sy

mes a’n lÿs ow châcya vy

kyns my dhe dhos, re’m leouta,

i’n tor’-ma rag dha draita?

Â! predery pandra wrav

dha wreg pàn y’s coveytyaf?

AABBCC

“Isolt yw dha wreg, ha my

dha omajer yn tefry.

Isolt yw dha wreg, my yw

kepar ha’th vab, dell wor Duw.

Isolt yw dha wreg, na yll

ow hara ha my mar vil.”

AABBCDDC

Mes Isolt sur a’n caras:

bytegyns hy a vynnas

dres pùptra oll y gasa.

A ny wrug hy vil-sconya?

Y gasa hy ny ylly.

I’n golon hy o serrys meur

orth an gerensa-ma yn sur

o tynha ages envy.

AABCCB

Brangyen a aspia glew

prest warnedha aga dew,

in hy holen tormentys:

rag den vÿth ny wodhya saw hy

oll an drog a veu gwrës gensy,

dre wall kynth o wharvedhys.

AAAAABCCAAAB

Dew dhëdh y whrug aspia

ha’ga gweles ow sconya

boos, dewas, pùb hebasca.

An eyl êth in unn dava

ow whilas prest y gela

kepar ha tus dall, heb wow:

pòr drist pàn êns dyberthys,

trista pàn êns y unnyes:

rag own brâs y a’s teva

hag yth esens ow crena

awos uthycter an dra,

ow cortos an kensa avow.

AABCCB

An tressa dëdh, pàn esa

Isolt aberth i’n tylda

o wàr an flûr drehevys,

y teuth Tristan rag côwsel.

Yn medh Isolt yn uvel:

“Enter, arlùth, my a’th pÿs.”

ABABCDDC

“Arlodhes,” yn medh Tristan,

“prag y whrusta ow gelwel

arlùth, rag yn pòr certan

my yw dha servont uvel

ha’th omajer abarth Duw

orth dha wordhya ha’th cara

ha’th servya bys vynytha

avell ow myternes wyw.”

ABABCC

Yn medh Isolt: “Yn pòr wir

ow arlùth os ha’w mêster,

ha henna yw ow desîr

a’m sens avell cabester

may fiv servont dhyso jy

ha gul warlergh dha vêstry.

AABBCC

”Elhas, elhas, na’th esyn

dhe verwel ryb an grêlyn!

Elhas na drehyn dha benn

ha’n cledha in ow dalhen!

Mar codhyen an pÿth a wòn

sur my a’th lathsa dyson.”

“Isolt, pandra wodhesta

a allo dha dormentya?”

AABBCCB

“Pùptra a wòn, re’m leouta,

orth ow thormentya yma!

Pùptra eus adhyragon,

an nor ha’n nev a-uhon,

bêwnans, mernans kekefrÿs

a wra dhymm bos tormentys

in corf, enef, ha colon.”

AABBCCDDEEFF

Dhodho y trailyas gans toth

ow corra bregh wàr y scoodh,

ha splander hy dewlagas

an dagrow scon a gudhas

ha’y dywwe’us a wrug crena.

Yn medh Tristan gans henna:

“Arlodhes, scon my a’th pÿs

lavar dhymm pandra wher dhis.”

Ha hy a wrug gortheby:

“Ow herensa orthys sy.”

Y golon a lamm lemmyn:

ev a amm dhedhy wàr an min.

Notes

The name Tristan has long been associated with the adjective trist (a loan-word from French). But the name is related in fact to Welsh drystan, and many kings of the Picts were called Drust. The original meaning is ‘noise, tumult’. Isolt apparently means ‘gazed upon’ and so ‘beautiful’ if it is a name of Celtic origin; though some argue it is actually Germanic, meaning ‘ice battle’.

In this passage bynytha and torment are alternative forms of benytha and tormont. Treat dywwe’us as two syllables (e’u as eu). For Caradar mydnas has the sense ‘wish, want’ in all its tenses. This is poetical usage.

Mar codhyen an pÿth a wòn / sur my a’th lathsa dyson Another instance of the imperfect indicative substituted for imperfect subjunctive, in this case in the protasis of an unreal conditional sentence. This is a useful way of making clear that the reference is to the past since, as we saw in Lesson Seven of Book Three, there is otherwise no way to determine whether an unreal conditional sentence refers to the past, the present or the future, save context alone.

Caradar employs nefra with past reference, either instead of pùpprës in an affirmative sentence or as a substitute for bythqweth in a negative one. The sense of nefra with exclusively present or future reference was not well understood in the early years of the revival.

Caradar employs present subjunctives (of more than one syllable) ending in o, distinct from imperfect subjunctives ending in a. The practice continues today among some people when they write Cornish, but in authentic speech these unstressed vowels are indistinguishable, having the same short sound as in English the whenever that word does not rhyme with three (so called ‘schwa’). Likewise alternative spellings dyllo and hùmbronk for verb-nouns dylla and hùmbrank, but there is no difference in pronunciation.

Practys Naw warn Ugans - Exercise Twenty Nine

Rosemary Sutcliff published a version of the story (Tristan and Iseult, 1971) in which the pair simply fall in love, without any magic potion. She says in her foreword: “I am sure in my own mind that the medieval storytellers added it to make an excuse for Tristan and Iseult for being in love with each other when Iseult was married to somebody else. And for me, this turns something that was real and living and part of themselves into something artificial, the result of drinking a sort of magic drug.” Do you agree? If you do, you might like to elaborate your reasoning? Or would removing the love potion involve the loss of an essential element of the story? If you incline to the latter position, why might the love potion be an indispensible part of the tale? See if you can formulate at least an outline of your position in Cornish.

Lethesow

According to the literary tradition of Arthurian legend that originated in France, Tristan was a prince of ‘Lyonesse’, derived from Lodonesia, the Latin name of Lothian in Scotland. But in later English adaptations of the French tales, Lyonesse was instead identified with the legendary sunken land of Lethesow, which is the Cornish name for the Seven Stones Reef (between Cornwall and the Scilly Isles), reputed to have once been the location of the lost country’s royal palace. Lethesow cannot have been the name of a kingdom in reality, since it transparently means ‘Milky Ones’ referring to the constant white water around the rocks. The tanker Torrey Canyon ran aground on this reef in 1967, and the resulting oil spill was a notorious environmental disaster.

Craig Weatherhill’s novel The Lyonesse Stone (1991) has been translated into Cornish by Nicholas Williams under the title Jowal Lethesow (2009).

Practys Deg warn Ugans - Exercise Thirty

Write an email in suitable Cornish to the head teacher of your eight year old daughter’s primary school, explaining that your daughter found her maths homework much too difficult yesterday evening; she became very tearful; the tasks did not seem to be covered by her textbook at all; ask if the head teacher could check the homework was appropriate, and query whether the topic had been adequately explained in class.

**********

LESSON SEYTH

LESSON SEVEN

Vocabulary

Here are some more new words.

artykyl m article, caslÿs f military camp / headquarters, cledhyans m excavation, codna tir m isthmus, concêvya v conceive, din m hill-fort, dûk m duke, dylabedhys dilapidated, erôsyans m erosion, gorenys f peninsula, hendhyscansek archaeological, palys m palace, pons kerdh m footbridge, pryson m prison, Spayn Spain, starneth m structure, tir meur m mainland, tourystieth f tourism, Vyctôryan m Victorian (also adjective)

An Cresvor is the Mediterranean. Uhelver Kernow is the High Sheriff of Cornwall.

Practys Udnek warn Ugans - Exercise Thirty One

Imagine you are a tour guide showing a group of Cornish speaking visitors around Tintagel Castle. Provide them with an interesting commentary. Answer their various questions. Here is a little bit of background material about the site. Do some research of your own to supplement it. Perhaps you would like to recount some of the legend of Tristan and Iseult as well.

Yma Castel Tyntajel (kefrës cries Din Kernowyon) a’y sav wàr Enys Tyntajel (yw gorenys in gwir) wàr vorrep an Tir Uhel. Dell hevel, warlergh dew gledhyans hendhyscansek in 2016 ha 2017, yth o an tyller orth dallath an Osow Cres boneyl udn drigva dhe vyterneth Dewnans pò caslÿs neb arlùth a’n vro. Kefys yw lînednow a balys, hag artyclys devedhys a Spayn ha’n Cresvor Ëst. Y feu an castel derevys i’n dêwdhegves cansbledhen gans Rychat, kensa yùrl Kernow, hag Jeffry Trevenow a scrifas fatell o Tyntajel an tyller may feu Arthùr concêvys pàn dheuth y das Uther Pendragon, dre dùll, dhe wely y vabm Igern, gwreg Dûk Kernow.

Wosa termyn Rychat, nyns o an castel dhe les an yùrlys na felha. Uhelver Kernow a’n kemeras ha ûsya radn anodho rag pryson. Yth esa an starneth ow mos yn tylabedhys, ha’n codna tir, a gelmy an worenys dhe’n tir meur, o shyndys der erôsyans.

An dourystieth a dheuth dhe’n castel in oos an Vyctôryans. Saw nyns o an fordh bys i’n worenys gwelhës erna veu pons kerdh settys dhe’n tyller in 2008.

Cornish Dewnans is based on Welsh Dyfnaint, which is a remodelling of the name of the ancient Celtic territory that the Romans called Dumnonia, encompassing what is now Devon and Cornwall. Dumnonia was never integrated into Roman Britannia, and it became an independent kingdom when Roman rule lapsed. Eventually the eastern part was incorporated by the Saxons into their kingdom of Wessex, and this is now the county of Devon. Some Cornish speakers apply the name Dewnans to modern Devon as if it never included Cornwall. That is essentially to acquiesce in the original Wessex propaganda, downplaying the significance of the western part of the territory that the Saxons did not fully control. It is better to follow Nicholas Boson and use the name Pow Densher from the later English ‘Devonshire’.

Jeffry Trevenow is Geoffrey of Monmouth in English. He wrote the largely fictional Historia Regum Britanniae ‘History of the Kings of Britain’ that was very influential in his own day.

Vocabulary

Here are some more new words.

ablatyf m ablative, absolût absolute, aflythys implacable, alowadow legitimate, any m complaint (health), anyêhes m poor health, arethva f podium, dais, attal m repayment, barbaryan m barbarian, barnet m baronet, barthusek amazing, bewek lively, bôstya v boast, brèst m chest, bualgorn m roll call (also bugle), chaunj m change, cherya v care for, cleves m illness, disease, cothwas m old fellow, coverfu m curfew, lights out, crycket m cricket (game), cùppa m tea cup, desk m desk, dres hedna in addition, dybyta pitiless, dyskybleth m discipline, dywysycter m enthusiasm, entryng m entrance, fassyon m fashion, ferv firm, fienasow pl anxiety, fin fine, fùndyans m institution, fusyk lucky, fycsyon m fiction, gans hedna moreover, besides (also thereupon), gorweytha v overwork, grêvons m ailment, gùdhùgen f collar, gwana v pierce, gwarthek col (horned) cattle, gwyver m wire, henavak m alderman, henys m old age, hirethek wistful, nostalgic, hunek sleepy, jolyfta m sprightliness, kenseth m lobby, kersek f fen, kesudnya v combine, kevrînyas m mystic, ledry v slope, slant, marthusy remarkable, meppyk m little lad, novellyk m novella, omdednans m retirement, pathos m pathos, pendescador m head teacher, percepcyon m perception, prat m practical joke, pray m prey, prevyans m testing, rascayl m mob, remembrans m memory, recollection, rew m row, scoos m shield, senyans m sounding, ringing, sherys m sherry, smat m ruffian, smyllyng m fragrance, somona (also sompna) v summon, sqwychus jerky, tasek fatherly, tauntyans v impudence, tirwedh f landscape, tradycyon m tradition, troyllya v wind (a clock), tydnhe v tighten, intensify, vernys m varnish, vertu m virtue

Pathos in fiction

An novellyk Goodbye, Mr Chips gans James Hilton (1934) yw aswonys yn tâ in park an pathos hirethek in fycsyon. Oll an lyver re beu trailys dhe Gernowek gans an tîtel Benatuw, Mêster Chyps. Obma an kensa chaptra.

Pàn vy avauncys pell in bledhydnyow (adar clâv, heb mar), traweythyow ty a vëdh hunek, ha’n ourys ow passya, dell hevel, kepar ha gwarthek syger eus ow tremena dres tirwedh. Indelma y feu bêwnans Chyps, pàn esa Termyn Kydnyaf ow mos dh’y dhyweth ha golow an jëdh ow cot’he, bys mayth o tewl lowr, in gwir, rag anowy an gass kyns Bualgorn. Drefen y fedha Chyps, par ha neb capten a’n mor, whath ow musura an eur herwyth sînys an dedhyow coth, ha prag na? abàn esa va tregys orth Mêstres Wickett, ogas glân dhe’n scol, in tenewen aral an strêt. Nans o deg bledhen hag ev tregys worteweth ena, warlergh y omdednans dhyworth soodh an Pendescador; pùpprës y fydna ev, ha perhednes an chy ganso, attendya euryow Brookfield meur moy ès clock Greenwich. “Mêstres Wickett,” a somona Chyps, in lev sqwychus, uhel y don, ow mentêna whath myns brâs a jolyfta, “a yllyth martesen kerhes dhybm cùppa tê kyns Prep?”

Pàn vy avauncys pell in bledhydnyow, plesont yw esedha ryb an tan hag eva cùppa tê ha golsowes clogh an scol ow seny Kydnyow, Bualgorn, Prep, ha Coverfu. Y fedha Chyps pùb dëdh ow troyllya an clock warlergh an dewetha senyans-ma; ena ev a worra an scoos gwyver orth an tan, degea an gass, ha don novel helerhy dhe’n gwely. Bohes venowgh y redya dres udn folen kyns ès cùsk dhe dhos scav ha cosel, moy haval dhe gevrînyas a wra tydnhe y bercepcyon ev, ages entryng a jaunj dhe vÿs aral. Rag hunrosow a lenwy y dhedhyow ha’y nosow dhe’n keth gradh.

Ev o avauncys pell in bledhydnyow (adar clâv, heb mar); in gwiryoneth, dell vedha Doctour Merivale ow leverel, nyns esa dhodho anyêhes vëth. “Ow den ker, ty yw sawha agesof vy,” a levery Merivale, ow lemyga gwedren a sherys pàn vysytya pùb pymthegves nos adre dro. “Ty a dremenas in hans dhe’n oos may coodh pobel in clevejow uthyk; ty yw onen a’n dus fusyk a vëdh marow naturek yn tien. Mara fydnys merwel defry! Ty yw cothwas mar varthusy, ma na yllyn dargana.” Mès pàn wre Chyps anwesy pò pàn esa gwynsow a’n ÿst owth uja dre bow an Kersegy, y fedha Merivale ow côwsel pryva orth Mêstres Wickett i’n kenseth in udn whystra: “Res yw y jerya, a wosta? Y vrèst … ha’y golon a vydn gorweytha. Nyns yw grêvons arbednyk – marnas anno domini, awot any moyha mortal, wàr an dyweth …”

Anno domini … eâ, re’m fay. Genys in 1848 ha gorrys dhe’n Dysqwedhyans Brâs avell flogh nowyth ow kerdhes … tus abyl dhe vôstya a dra mar bell, nyns esa lies onen ow pêwa. Gans hedna, Chyps a berthy cov kefrës a Brookfield pàn o Wetherby pendescador. Barthusek veu hedna. I’n dedhyow-na yth o Wetherby den coth – 1870 – êsy dhe remembra dre rêson an Gwerryans Frynk-Prùssyan. Chyps a wrug ombrofya rag soodh in Brookfield wosa udn vledhen in Melbury, nag o dâ ganso, abàn veuva tauntyans lower torn warnodho i’n tyller-na. Saw Brookfield o pur dhâ ganso, dhia’n very dallath ogasty. Ev a remembras dëdh y kensa keswel – Gortheren howlek, ha’n air leun a smyllyng flourys ha’n plyck-plock a grycket wàr an gwel. Yth esa Brookfield ow qwary warbydn Barnhurst, hag onen a’n vebyon a Barnhurst, meppyk tùch tew, a bonyas cans spladn. Astranj fatl’o pëth a’n par-ma gortys mar gler i’n cov. Wetherby y honen o tasek teg ha cortes; res o ev dhe vos clâv solabrës, an den truan, rag ev a veu marow in degolyow an hâv, kyns ès Chyps dhe dhallath y kensa Termyn. Saw omvetya ha talkya warbarth a wrussons y dhe’n lyha. Y fedha Chyps ow predery liesgweyth, pàn esa a’y eseth ryb tan chy Mêstres Wickett: lyckly lowr nyns eus ken den vëth i’n bÿs a’n jeves remembrans bew a Wetherby coth … Bew, eâ; yth o pyctour menowgh in y vrës, an jëdh-na a hâv, ha’n howl ow qwana der an doust in studhva Wetherby. “Why yw den yonk, Mêster Chipping, ha Brookfield yw fùndyans coth. Dre vrâs yma yowynkes ha henys ow kesudnya yn tâ. Mar reth agas dywysycter dhe Brookfield, y fëdh Brookfield ow ry neppÿth in attal. Ha na sùffrowgh nagonen dhe wil prattys dhywgh. Dell … èr … glôwys, dyskybleth nyns o gàs creffa vertu in Melbury?”

“Wèl, nag o, pàr hap, a syra.”

“Ny vern; why yw cowl-yonk; dre vrâs yth yw mater a experyens. Y fëdh dhywgh ken chauns obma. Kemerowgh cowntnans ferv i’n kensa dëdh, ot oll an kevrîn.”

Martesen. Ev a berthy cov a’n kensa prevyans uthyk a venystra Prep; howlsedhas a vis Gwydngala nans o hanter-cansbledhen; Hel Brâs leun a varbaryans yagh aga crefter, parys dhe lebmel warnodho avell pray alowadow. Y yowynkes, fresk y fâss, uhel y wùdhùgen, ha’y varv scovarn (fassyons coynt a’s teva i’n dedhyow-na), in peryl pymp cans smat heb conscyans, mayth o piga descadoryon nowyth creft fin dhedha, sport bewek, ha tradycyon teg. Gwesyon onest, onen hag onen, saw – avell rascayl – only dybyta hag aflythys. Y feu taw sodyn pàn esedhas ev orth y dhesk wàr an arethva arâg; asper y semlant rag cudha an fienasow esa aberveth; y feu an clock hir adrëv dhodho, ha’n odours a veu ink ha vernys; an dewetha dewydnow, mar rudh avell goos, ow ledry dhe’n leur dre fenestry a weder lyw. Y whrug nebonen gasa gorher desk dhe godha – uskys! res o sowthanas pùb huny; res o showya na vëdh ganso flows vëth. “Ty ena i’n pympes rew – ty ha’th vlew rudh – py hanow?” – “Colley, syra.” – “Wèl, Colley, scrif cans lînen.” Ny veu trobel vëth wosa hedna. Ev a wainyas y kensa fyt.

Ha lies bledhen a’y wosa, pàn o Colley henavak dhe’n Cyta Loundres ha barnet ha tysk taclow erel, ev a worras y vab (rudh y vlew yn kehaval) dhe Brookfield, hag y fedha Chyps ow leverel: “Colley, dha das o an kensa scolor a wrug avy pùnyshya pàn dheuth vy obma nans yw pymp bledhen warn ugans. Ev a’n dendylas i’n prës-na, ha ty orth y dhendyl i’n eur-ma.” Assa veu aga wharth warbarth, hag assa wharthas Syr Richard pàn wrug y vab screfa an whedhel i’n nessa lyther Sul!

Dres hedna, warlergh lies bledhen moy, y feu ges gwell vëth. Rag ken Colley a dheuth nowyth i’n scol – mab dhe’n Colley-na o mab dhe’n kensa Colley. Hag y fedha Chyps ow leverel, ow poyntya y eryow gans an emf-èm bian o lebmyn ûsadow ganso: “Colley, ty yw – emf – ensampyl bryntyn in – emf – tradycyon erytys. Yth esof ow perthy cov a’th sîra wydn – emf – bythqweth ny wor convedhes an Ablatyf Absolût. Gwas gocky o dha sîra wydn. Ha’th tas kefrës – emf – th’esof ow perthy cov anodho ev – esedhys orth an desk pell-na ryb an fos – ev ny veu meur gwell naneyl. Saw dell gresaf – ow Colley ker – ty yw – emf – an moyha fol intredhans oll!” Ha wharth pùbonen owth uja.

Ges brâs o indelma mos yn coth – mès ges trist, inwedh, neb fordh. Ha pàn esa Chyps a’y eseth ryb y dan, ha’n awellow a gydnyaf ow crehylly an fenestry, an todnow a hûmour hag a dristans a scubya dresto yn pòr venowgh, bys may codha dagrow, ha Mêstres Wickett, devedhys gans y gùppa tê, ny wodhya mars esa va ow wherthyn nag owth ola. Na ny wodhya Chyps y honen.

Notes

Ablatyf absolût is a Latin grammatical construction. An Gwerryans Frynk-Prùssyan is the Franco-Prussian War (1870–71). Barv scovarn means ‘side whiskers’. Gweder lyw is ‘stained glass’.

The usual plural of kersek is kersegow. But an older plural Kersegy is seen in the Cornish name of the Cambridgeshire Fens.

ny wodhya mars esa va ow wherthyn nag owth ola

Note this usage of na(g) ‘nor’ to mean ‘or (not that but) rather’.

Practys Dêwdhek warn Ugans - Exercise Thirty Two

Fatell eus ‘pathos hirethek’ ow sordya in mes a’n kensa chaptra a Benatuw, Mêster Chyps? Gwrewgh gortheby, moyha gyllowgh, in Kernowek.

Taking care with collective nouns

Gwarthek is the latest collective noun to be introduced to our vocabulary. All collective nouns are referenced by plural pronouns in Cornish. In English this is also the case for the word ‘cattle’, so it will not be surprising that Cornish says, for instance, yma an gwarthek ow pory – ymowns y ow pory ‘the cattle are grazing – they are grazing’. But learners of Cornish sometimes also pick up an idea all collective nouns form a singulative ending in en. It is not correct. Many collective nouns do make such a singulative, so we say, for example blew ‘hair’ and blewen ‘a single hair’. But gwarthek is one of the collective nouns that has no singulative. There is also a general belief that every singulative has a plural ending in ednow. This is almost right. But gwelen (from collective gwel ‘sticks’) has plural gwelyny and gwredhen (from collective gwrëdh ‘roots’) has plural gwredhyow; while mynysen has plural mynysow and is not actually a singulative at all; some speakers of revived Cornish have reasoned the existence of a collective mynys, but this would be inconsistent with the treatment in Cornish of all other measurements of time.

Blew is one of the collective nouns about which we must be careful for a different reason, because in English we do not employ a plural pronoun when referencing hair. So Cornish says, for instance, hy blew yw pòr hir – yth yns y pòr hir ‘her hair is very long – it is very long’.

Here are some other collective nouns we already know that require a plural pronoun although their English equivalent accepts singular reference: beler, brows (and brewyon in the same sense), cala, cunys, ewon, eythyn, grug, gwels, gwlân, idhyow, kenyn ewynak, keser, kewargh, kyffewy, luhes, mebyl, mùllyon, persyl Cathay (and simple persyl ‘parsley’), tewas, vytel (though English would employ a plural pronoun when taking the sense as older ‘victuals’ rather than simply ‘food’), ÿs ‘corn’ (as in pop-ÿs and ÿs wheg).

Sometimes English uses both singular and plural forms with nearly identical meaning: lusow ‘ash(es)’, for example. This does not affect the collective nature of the Cornish word. Sometimes English opts for a distinctly countable singular: for instance, ‘a moustache’ where the Cornish minvlew literally means ‘(uncountable) lip hair’.

A Cornish collective may sometimes correspond to an English plural and sometimes to an English singular, depending on the context. Onyon may be ‘onions’ or, as an uncountable ingredient when cooking for example, simply ‘onion’; contrast onyonen ‘a single (countable) onion’. Likewise cawl, letys, etc. But such nouns, being grammatically collective, will always require a plural pronoun in Cornish. Similarly, collective derow ‘oaks’ may also be used for uncountable timber ‘oak’; but predn derow is an ordinary singular.

The origin of brewyon is transparently the plural noun formed from adjective brew ‘bruised, broken’; this was recharacterized as a collective when the sense was ‘crumbs, fragments’ because of singulative brewyonen ‘a crumb, a fragment’, and because the reclassification did not trigger any change of pronoun reference.

Finally, it is worth noting that the classification of collective nouns is dependent to some extent on the approach of individual lexicographers. Mebyl for example is understood by many not as a collective at all but as an ordinary masculine singular noun just like its near-synonym gùtrel.

Practys Tredhek warn Ugans - Exercise Thirty Three

How would you say the following in Cornish?

Lettuce is an important ingredient in any salad – indeed, I think it is an essential ingredient. We wear wool in winter – yes, in winter we wear it always. This sand will protect the house from flood water – can you help him fill some bags with it? That lightning is amazing – it’s lighting up the whole sky. The straw in the stable (stâbel) is very dirty – it must be changed.

More about inflected imperfects

In Lesson Twelve of Book Three we learned that inflected imperfects follow one of two patterns. The second pattern, exemplified by dallath, involves affection of the final vowel of the stem. It will now be useful to gather together the principal verbs that have an inflected imperfect according to this second pattern.

First, we can note that all verbs with a verb-noun ending in el employ the second pattern. The affection already occurs in the verb-noun itself and is replicated in the imperfect forms. Thus with verb-noun lebmel (stem labm), for example, we have imperfect forms lebmyn, lebmys, lebmy, lebmyn, lebmewgh, lebmens.

Verbs with a verb-noun ending in es employ the second pattern. Thus with verb-noun gweles (stem gwel), for example, we have imperfect forms gwelyn, gwelys, gwely, gwelyn, gwelewgh, gwelens. There is never any affection in verb-nouns ending in es. But one such verb, clôwes, does exceptionally follow the first pattern, having imperfect forms clôwen, clôwes, clôwa (also clôwo – an alternative unique to this verb, but there is no difference in pronunciation), clôwen, clôwewgh, clôwens. And of course we do not include bones, dones, mones here because these are merely strengthened forms of the primary verb-nouns bos, dos, mos.

Verbs with a verb-noun formed with suffix y adopt the second pattern for their inflected imperfect tense. But we noted in Lesson Nine of Book Three that such verbs borrowed from Breton or Welsh very rarely inflect at all.

All verbs with a verb-noun formed with suffix he employ the second pattern. Thus with verb-noun crefhe, for example, we have imperfect forms crefhyn, crefhys, crefhy, crefhyn, crefhewgh, crefhens.

Finally, here is a checklist of other important verbs that adopt an imperfect of the second pattern: abma (with affected stem ibm), aswon, dallath (with affected stem daleth), danvon (with affected stem danven), dôwys, dybarth (with affected stem dyberth), dyfen, don (with affected stem deg), dylla, wherthyn (with same affected stem wherth), gonys (with stem gonedh) ‘cultivate’, govyn (with stem govydn), hùmbrank (with stem hùmbronk), lavasos ‘venture’, omlath (with affected stem omledh). Folwherthyn, gwenwherthyn, minwherthyn inflect like wherthyn. And you can see that the imperfect tense of gallos (with affected stem gyll) that we have known since Book One likewise belongs to the second pattern.

Practys Peswardhek warn Ugans - Exercise Thirty Four

How would you say the following in Cornish? Employ an inflected imperfect form wherever possible?

He was waiting for a week. She was speaking for an hour. You used to visit more often. Were they laughing or crying? We were exploring the castle. I didn’t use to smoke more than one or two a day. Were you watching? You weren’t listening. He said that (fatell) we would fight. I was leading them like lambs to the slaughter!

Cornish does not require any preposition in the first two sentences. In the last sentence use latty m ‘slaughterhouse’.

Practys Pymthek warn Ugans - Exercise Thirty Five

Write an email in suitable Cornish to a local plumber about replacing a toilet flush that no longer works. You attach a photograph of the inside of the cistern. You wish to know whether the plumber can do the job, how soon, and how much it will cost.

You will need dowrargh f cistern, gweythor plobm m plumber, gwythresa v operate, function, tedn dowr m flush.

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LESSON ETH

LESSON EIGHT

Vocabulary

Here are some more new words.

airbosor m barometer, Appalachyan Appalachian, branch m branch (often figuratively), bryck m brick, clos f lattice (also grid, rack), crùllya v curl, cùgol m hood, culyak gwyns m weathercock, cùrun f crown, decernya v distinguish, dyskevelsys disjointed, eth m vapour, fay m fairy, gwartha m top, summit, hudol magical, Iselalman Dutch, lentry v shine, gleam, provyns m province, pùnyon m gable, pùrpur purple, regardya v regard (also bear in mind), to m roof, trevesygor m settler, colonist, trigor m inhabitant, uhelder m height, whedhy v swell

Derevel ‘rise’ is also used transitively to mean ‘raise, construct’. Dowr Hudson is the Hudson River of what is now New York State. Ena is an alternative form of enef. As in English, Holland means either Holland in a strict sense or the Netherlands (an Iseldiryow) more generally. Tâl is often used to refer the ‘front’ or ‘end’ of something.

Practys Whêtek warn Ugans - Exercise Thirty Six

Obma an kensa dew baragraf a’n whedhel berr Rip Van Winkle gans Washington Irving (1819), trailys dhe Gernowek. Wosa aga redya, gwrewgh descryvyans sêmly a neb tre pò treveglos in tirwedh dhynyak yw kerys genowgh why.

Pynag a wrella viaj Dowr Hudson ahës, ny alsa hedna ankevy an Menydhyow Kaatskill. Yth yns y branch dyskevelsys a’n teylu Appalachyan brâs, dhe weles a’n tu west dhe’n ryver, hag ymowns ow whedhy bys in uhelder bryntyn, hag ow lordya dres an pow i’ga herhyn. Yma pùb chaunj a’n sêson, pùb chaunj a’n awel, pùb eur a’n jëdh iredy, ow try neb chaunj in colours ha formys hudol an menydhyow-ma, hag anjy regardyes gans oll an gwrageth ty, ogas ha pell, avell airbosoryon perfeth. Pàn vo an awel teg ha sur, ymowns y gwyskys blou ha pùrpur, ow pryntya aga lînednow poos wàr ebron gler an gordhuwher; saw traweythyow, an dirwedh pàn vo heb cloud ogasty, y fedhons ow cùntell cùgol êthow loos adro dh’aga gwarthavyon, ha brav y wolow bryght kepar ha cùrun glory.

Orth goles an menydhyow gis fayes-ma, y hyll an viajyor decernya an mog scav ow crùllya mes a dreveglos in bàn, hag estyll an tohow ow lentry in mesk an gwëdh i’n keth le may ma arlywyow blou an uheldir ow tedha in glasny fresk an dirwedh yw nes. Otta treveglos pòr goth, fùndyes gans parcel a’n drevesygoryon Iselalman in oos avarr an provyns, orth dallath governans Peter Stuyvesant mas (re bo cres dh’y ena!), hag i’n tyller-ma kyn pedn bohes termyn y feu derevys nebes a’n treven a longya dhe’n drigoryon wredhek, byldyes a vryckys melen bian o drës dhia Holland, ha clojow dh’aga fenestry ha pùnyons dh’aga thâlyow, ha culyak gwyns wàr bùb anedha.

Verbs that are exclusively intransitive

Many verbs that are often used intransitively (without any expressed or implied direct object) may also be used transitively with such an object.

We have just encountered derevel meaning ‘raise, construct’ (transitive) as well as ‘rise’ (intransitive). Another common instance is dallath: something may begin (intransitive); or someone may begin it (transitive with direct object, which will frequently be a verb-noun); or the sense may still be transitive though the verb is used on its own, as in a simple statement like ev a dhalathas ‘he has begun’ (with context alone telling us what he has begun).

A futher example would be metya, which is transitive in my a’n metyas ‘I met him’, but intransitive in ny a wrug metya ‘we met’ and my a wrug metya ganso ‘I met [with] him’.

A few verbs, however, are treated in everyday modern Cornish as more or less exclusively intransitive. The commonest of these are entra, esedha, growedha, hedhy, powes, sevel. We must take this into account when we wish to say something transitively with these verbs. For example, ‘I sat him down’ will be my a wrug dhodho esedha, literally ‘I made to him a sitting down’.

Compounds of sevel are not subject to the same restriction. Hence drehevel ‘rise’ but also ‘raise, construct’ (it is a parallel form of derevel); and dysevel ‘upset, knock over’.

We should also note that reflexive verbs formed with prefix om may optionally take an ‘internal object’ formed with honen: for example, yth esa hy owth omhowla hy honen ‘she was sunbathing’. But omwheles ‘overturn’ may be either reflexive or fully transitive in meaning, so we can say, for instance, na omwhel an kert kyns ès drehedhes top an vre, which is equivalent to English ‘don’t upset the apple cart’.

Practys Seytek warn Ugans - Exercise Thirty Seven

How would you say the following in Cornish?

To stop the bus you must ring the bell. You have to take a ticket at the barrier before you can enter the car park. I laid the injured child carefully on the bed. I paused the video while I quickly went to the loo. I stopped the video because it was much less interesting than I had expected.

Vocabulary

Here are some more new words.

acownt rentys ha mona spênys m income and expenditure account, alwhedhor m treasurer, arhansek financial, bledhednek annual, cafosyans m acquisition, draghtya v draw up, draft, eseleth m membership, frankwober m honorarium, gwain m gain, oker m interest (on deposit or loan), pëth m asset(s), rentya v rent, hire, scrif balans m balance sheet, stock m stock

Boton is both a button and a (bumper) badge. The verb derivas ‘report’ is also employed as a masculine noun with the same meaning.

Practys Êtek warn Ugans - Exercise Thirty Eight

Why yw alwhedhor dhe neb clùb bian, Kernowek y davas. An cùntellyans kebmyn bledhednek a wher a verr spÿs, ha why a res darbary derivas arhansek dhe’n esely. Gwrewgh draghtya acownt rentys ha mona spênys, ha scrif balans, rag dysqwedhes yn kempen an manylyon a sew.

Dres an dewetha bledhen an clùb a recêvas £740 awos ragprenow eseleth; £110 rag royow; £244.50 profyt awos gwertha gwara (lyfryow, cappys, botodnow), ha £49.76 rag oker arhanty. An clùb a spênas £350 rag rentya rom dhe’n lies metyans; £400 rag frankwober (in le a astevery costow gwir) o tylys dhe vysytyoryon a veu gelwys rag arethya dhe’n clùb; £80 rag coffy, tesednow, ha haval. An gwain ytho i’n vledhen o £314.26. Pëth an clùb wàr dhallath an vledhen o £1,115.38 i’n acownt kesres orth an arhanty, £3,000 i’n acownt erbysy, ha stock gans valew (còst cafosyans) a £530. An pëth wàr dhyweth an vledhen o £1,674.64 i’n acownt kesres, £3,000 i’n acownt erbysy, ha stock gans valew a £285 warlergh gwertha gwara in valew £415 ha prena £170 a wara nowyth. Nyns esa kendon vëth, nag orth dallath na wàr dhyweth an vledhen.

An income and expenditure account is not the same as an account of receipts (mona recêvys) and payments (pêmons) that merely records all sums in and out. A business will usually have a profit and loss account instead, acownt profyt ha coll, showing items such as interest paid (oker pës), tax (tollow), depreciation (dybrîsyans) and amortization (amortîsans).

Vocabulary

Here are some more new words.

batalyas v battle, fight, brâstir m continent, caslan f battlefield, consecrâtya v consecrate, denethy v beget, bring forth, euver futile, gwerryans bredereth m civil war, hegof memorable, lyberta m liberty, moghhe v augment, increase, powesva f resting-place, strîvya v strive, struggle, tireth m terrain, territory

Oratory

Rhetoric (Cornish arethyk) is the art of persuasion. It lies at the heart of oratory (Cornish arethorieth), the art of effective public speaking. One of the most famous examples of oratory is the address given by President Abraham Lincoln when he visited the battlefield where the Unionists had just won a great victory in the American Civil War (1863). Here is that speech in Cornish translation.

Seyth bledhen ha peswar ugans alebma, y whrug agan tasow denethy wàr an brâstir-ma nacyon nowyth, concêvys i’n Lyberta, ha sacrys dhe’n tybyans pùb den oll dhe vos formys kehaval.

I’n eur-ma, yth eson ny omgelmys in gwerryans bredereth, gwerryans brâs, ow prevy mar kyll an nacyon-na, bò py nacyon pynag concêvys indelha ha sacrys indelha, durya termyn hir. Omvetys yth eson ny wàr gaslan vrâs i’n vresel-na. Devedhys on ny rag sacra radn a’n gwel batel-na in powesva dhewetha dhe’n re a ros obma aga bêwnans, bêwa may halla an nacyon-na. Yn very ewn y tegoth dhyn ny gwil hebma.

Saw, in styr moy efan, ny yllyn ny sacra – ny yllyn ny sona – ny yllyn ny consecrâtya – an tireth-ma. An dus colodnek, bew ha marow, myns a strîvyas obma, an re-ma re’n consecrâtyas, dres ha a-ugh agan gallos gwadn addya bò lehe. Scant ny vëdh an bÿs ow merkya, nag ow perthy pell in cov, an pëth a leveryn ny obma, saw nefra ny yll ev ankevy an pëth obma a wrussons ynsy. Y coodh dhyn ny kyns, an dus a vêw, dhyn ny y coodh bos sacrys obma dhe’n whel avauncys ahës, heb colenwel kyn fe, gans seul a wrug batalyas obma maga fryntyn. Y coodh dhyn ny kyns, dhyn ny y coodh bos obma sacrys dhe’n ober brâs usy ow cortos genen – rag may whrellen ny kemeres, dhyworth an dus varow onorys-ma, devôcyon moghhës dhe’n ken may rosons y an dewetha musur leun a dhevôcyon dhodho – rag may fednyn ny obma ervira, uhel agan brës, na veu an re-ma marow yn euver – rag may caffa an nacyon-ma, in dadn Dhuw, genesygeth nowyth a franchys – ha rag nag ella governans a’n bobel, gans an bobel, dhe les an bobel, nag ella hebma dhe goll dhywar an bÿs.

Practys Nawnjek warn Ugans - Exercise Thirty Nine

Fatell wrug Presydent Lincoln gorra gallos ha nerth dh’y areth wàr an gaslan? Prag yth yw hy mar hegof? Styryowgh, kebmys a yllowgh, in Kernowek.

Vocabulary

Here are some more new words.

bora m morning (poetical), brêwy v bruise, wound, caradow m beloved, cosoleth m quiet, stillness, crowsya v crucify, cùruna v crown, deglena v tremble, quiver, drùshya v thresh, dyfethya v lay waste, dyvarrans m pruning, fusta v thresh (also beat), glenans m clinging, golia v wound, gosa v bleed, gover m brook, gwynder m whiteness, manal f manallow sheaf, medhelder m softness, tenderness, melyas v grind, nothhe v strip naked, pejadow m prayer, perhedna v possess, plysk col husks, plyth pliant, profet m prophet, ryddya v rid, rydra v sift, sîna v sign, tranjyak m ecstasy

Oratory – continued

We find a different kind of oratory in Kahlil Gibran’s The Prophet (1923), which has been translated into Cornish as An Profet. In rhetorical prose coming close to poetry the prophet of the title addresses the people before taking ship to depart for home, which is a metaphor of his death.

In this extract the Prophet responds to the plea Cows orthyn a Gerensa.

Hag ev a wrug derevel y benn ha miras orth an bobel, hag y codhas cosoleth warnedha. Hag in voys brâs ev a leverys:

An gerensa pàn wrella sîna dhis, sew hy,

Kynth yw hy fordh cales ha serth.

Ha hy eskelly pàn vowns plegys i’th kerhyn, omroy dha honen dhedhy,

Kyn hyll hy lev brêwy dha hunros dhe dymmyn dell wra gwyns an north dyfÿthya lowarth.

Dell wra kerensa dha gùruna, kefrÿs heb mar hy a wra dha growsya. Dell yw hy abarth dha devyans, kefrÿs yth yw abarth dha dhyvarrans.

Dell wra hy ascendya dhe’th wartha ha chersya dha vranchys moyha medhel, usy ow teglena i’n howl,

Kefrÿs y whra hy skynnya dhe’th wrëdh ha’ga shakya i’ga glenans i’n dor.

Kepar ha manallow hy a wra dha gùntell dhedhy.

Hy a wra dha fusta rag nothhe.

Hy a wra dha rydra rag ryddya a’th plysk.

Hy a wra dha velyas bys in gwynder.

Hy a’th toos erna vy plyth;

Ena hy a vynn dha boyntya dh’y than sans, may hylly bos bara sans dhe fest sans Duw.

Ha’y gerensa a wra hemma oll dhis, may whothfy kevrîn dha golon, ha bos i’n godhvos-na tamm a golon an Bêwnans.

Saw mar ny vynnys whilas i’th own ma’s cosoleth an gerensa ha plesour an gerensa,

Dhana gwell yw dhys cudha dha notha ha qwyttya leur drùshya an gerensa,

Ow mos aberth i’n bÿs heb sêson, le may hylly wherthyn, heb wherthyn oll dha wharth; le may hylly ola, heb ola oll dha dhagrow.

Ny re an gerensa ma’s hy honen, ny gemmer tra vÿth ma’s dhyworty.

Ny wra an gerensa perhenna na ny vynn bos perhennys;

Rag yth yw an gerensa lowr dhe’n gerensa.

Pàn gyrry, na lavar, “Yma Duw i’m colon,” mès “Yth esof in colon Duw.”

Na breder ty dhe rêwlya cors an gerensa: rag y whra an gerensa, mar y’th kev wordhy, rêwlya dha gors jy.

Nyns eus desîr dhe’n gerensa ma’s colenwel hy honen.

Saw mar kyrry, mar po res dhis desîrya, bedhens dha dhesîr indelma:

Bos tedhys, kepar ha gover ow cana y gân dhe’n nos.

Godhvos pain a vedhelder re vrâs.

Bos golies dre gonvedhes an gerensa i’th honen;

Ha gosa a’th vodh ha joy.

Dyfuna i’n bora hag eskelly dhe’th colon ha grassa pùb dëdh moy a gerensa.

Powes orth hanter-dëdh ha consydra tranjyak a’n gerensa;

Dos tre gordhuwher ha grassyans genes;

Ena cùsca ha pejadow gans dha garadow i’th colon ha cân a wormola wàr dha vin.

For alternative dyfëthya see dyfëth. The verb grassa more usually employs dhe with the person (or thing) that is being thanked. Compare optional but frequent dhe with abma.

Vocabulary

Here are some more new words.

Bretednek British, campyor m champion, conqwerrya v conquer, subjugate, delyverans m deliverance, liberation, dyfygya v fail, be wanting, esow m destitution, Ewrôpek European, Gestâpô m Gestapo, gwardya v guard, morlu m fleet, navy, Natsy Nazi (also masculine noun), power m power, rescous m rescue, strif m strife, struggle, tira v land

Oratory - continued

U.S. citizens learn the Gettysburg address by heart. In the UK many have a high regard for the oratory of Winston Churchill. Here in Cornish translation is the paragraph of his speech to the House of Commons in 1940 that contains perhaps his most famous sentence. Try memorizing the Cornish text of Gettysburg and of Churchill’s famous words. They will provide a useful reference point for oratorical efforts of your own.

Na fors dell yw myns brâs a’n brâstir Ewrôpek ha lies Stât meur aga hanow codhys pò in peryl a godha dhe dhalhen an Gestâpô ha dhe jynys oll an rêwl Natsy, ny vedhyn ny na diek na dyfygys. Ny a wra durya bys i’n dyweth. Ny a wra batalyas in Frynk, batalyas wàr bùb mor ha keynvor, batalyas gans omfydhyans ha crefter ow cressya i’n air, ny a wra dyffres agan enys, pynag a vo an còst. Ny a wra batalyas wàr an trethow, batalyas wàr an tyleryow tira, batalyas i’n gwelyow hag i’n strêtys, batalyas i’n breow; omry nefra ny wren ny. Hag a pe unweyth, pëth na gresaf tecken vëth, an enys-ma pò radn vrâs anedhy conqwerrys hag in esow tydn, ena y fensa agan Empîr tramor, ervys ha gwardyes gans an Morlu Bretednek, pêsya an strif bys i’n termyn, a rollo Duw dâ, may teffo an Bÿs Nowyth, hag oll y allos, oll y bower, in campyor dhe’n rescous, dhe’n delyverans, a’n Bÿs Coth.

You should stress delyverans on the second syllable.

Practys Dêwgans - Exercise Forty

Write an email in suitable Cornish to your dental hygienist, saying you’re very sorry about the short notice but you’ll have to cancel your appointment for tomorrow because you’re suddenly needed to take your mother to hospital for an MRI scan. Ask the hygienist to email back with a new appointment time: Monday to Friday but no earlier than 10:30 a.m.

Glanythor dens is a dental hygienist (optionally glanythores dens if a woman) and scanyans is a scan. Cornish IDT (imajya dassenyans tenvenek) corresponds to English MRI (magnetic resonance imaging).

**********

LESSON NAW

LESSON NINE

Inflected preterite tense with ending ys instead of as

In Lesson Five of Book Two we first noted that a relatively small number of verbs have a preterite ending ys where most verbs have ending as. The verbs in question include all those with verb-noun ending in el. This checklist of the others will be useful.

aswon, brêwy, cresy, cruny, debry, dedhewy ‘promise’, demedhy, denethy, denewy, derivas, dewheles (and domhel ‘overthrow’ and omwheles), diank (affection applies, so dienkys), dystrôwy, erhy (and dynerhy ‘send greetings (to)’), godhaf ‘undergo’ (affection applies, so godhevys (as for alternative verb-noun godhevel), gorhebmyn ‘bid, wish’ (pre-occlusion shifts with stress, so gorhemydnys), gortheby, hedhy (contrast hedhas 'reached', verb-noun hedhes), hevelly, kentrewy ‘nail’, molethy, pesy, predery (and ombredery), sensy (and omsensy), tevy, tyby, tyly (and attyly ‘repay’), yêwny ‘yearn (for)’

Just as for verbs with verb-nouns ending in el, there are some alternative preterites ending in as – debras, demedhas, ombrederas, prederas. Parallel verb destria with preterite destrias can replace dystrôwy.

An unwarranted custom developed among early revivalists of substituting dynerhy for wolcùbma. You should not imitate this practice.

Note that sedhy employs the preterite ending as; substituting ys to distinguish the preterite of sedhy from that of sedha (clipped from esedha) might seem opportune; but it is not authentic.

Practys Onen ha Dêwgans - Exercise Forty One

How would you say the following in Cornish? Use the inflected preterite tense after link particle a in each case.

They wished us joy. Who ate all the cheese? As a student she accumulated a mountain of debt. As a successful businesswoman she quickly paid back the whole amount. You tolerated all his impudence – how do you do it? The blow bruised my arm. You grew up too fast. I replied to that letter days ago. That terrorist group even overthrew the elected government. The clock stopped, never to go again, when the old man died.

Vocabulary

Here are some more new words.

alegory m allegory, atla m hoodlum (also outlaw), awedhyans m influence, honen-vewgrafek autobiographical, convertyans m conversion, dans m tooth, fang, Darwynieth f Darwinism, fylosofy m philosophy, gerys dâ respectable, Marxieth f Marxism, part … part partly … partly, wharheans m civilization

Clipped dhelergh has the same meaning as adhelergh.

Literary allegory

Darwynieth, Marxieth ha fylosofy Nietzsche o awedhyans dhe Jack London in y novel White Fang (1906). An whedhel-ma yw part alegory honen-vewgrafek a’y gonvertyans dhyworth atla yonk bys in auctour gerys dâ, part alegory moy kebmyn fatell veu mab den avauncys dhia natur dhe wharheans. Obma why a yll redya an kensa chaptra trailys dhe Gernowek. Hanow an novel in Kernowek yw Dans Gwynn; tîtel an kensa chaptra yw An Kiglergh. Kyns oll, y fëdh res istyna agas gerva in myns nag yw bian.

Ot an geryow nowyth may fëdh otham anodhans

afreal unreal, agrians m agreement, aha m awe, ancres m unrest, disquiet, ania v get on someone’s nerves, anwhecter m unpleasantness, bedhscrif m epitaph, berryk fatty, bës brâs m thumb, besow col beeches, blew lagas col eyelashes, bleydh m wolf, bodny m cluster, bùcka gwydn m ghost, bùlet m bullet, camp m camp, carg m load, carr slynkya m sled, cartryjen f cartridge, caryn m carcass, cessyans m cessation, chaunjya ervirans change one’s mind, clowyowgh m hullaballoo, colhes f bed (on the ground) – also mattress, conar f fury, coselhe v calm (down), cowrek gigantic, colossal, cramyas v crawl, cropya v force (into something), crybaj m cribbage, cûlbren m club, cudgel, dargan-drog ominous, dasleverel v repeat (something said), demondya v demand, densel v bite, chew, deray m disorder, desmyk m guess(ing), dewana v penetrate, doth discreet, tactful, dryftya v drift, dybowes restless, dydrygh indomitable, dyfaladôwder m infallibility, dylâcya v unlace, untie, dystryppya v strip, dyth m saying, dictum, dyvew lifeless, edhen corf m ghoul, encledhyas m burial, funeral, enep m surface, erya v defy, estren foreign, alien, eternyta m eternity, êthedna v steam, euvereth m futility, exaltyans m exaltation, facly v flare (up), faint faint, felder m cunning, fers fierce, fêsya v drive out, fetha v defeat, fler m stench, forest m forest, froth m stir, tumult, furneth m wisdom, fysk m rush, geler f coffin, glas m maw, golesky v scorch, singe, gorweles v hallucinate, gosel f runner (of sled), grappa m grape, greuv m front (of body or figuratively), gròn m mass, huddle, gwallus casual, gwastyans m desolation, gway(ans) m move(ment), gwêvyans m wave (of hand etc), gwres f heat (mostly figuratively), gwrÿs m crystal(s), gwrysa v crystallize, gwyscas m covering (also layer), helgh m hunt, helghya v hunt, hernes m harness (also equipment), hewel visible, hirbedrak oblong, hos hoarse, hùbbadùllya m racket (noise), hudhes col bed coverings, hynt m hint, idhyl puny, in dadn an rewboynt below freezing, in poynt dâ in good form, inclynya v nod (head) – also incline, kedna v form a skin, kelgh m circle, kenkya v bicker, kescomûnyans m communication, kescovedhyans m sympathy, commiseration, kesqwary m interplay, kevrednak in partaking of, kynvan m wail(ing), lejer m frying pan, lenter shining, gleaming, lymder m sharpness, lymytya v limit, malbe(w) [dabm] damn all, merth m mirth, mockyans m mockery, moos f table, motta m mote, najeth (also nasweth) f needle, nàm m spot, blemish, nâsya v affect, nownek hungry, offrydna v offer up, sacrifice, ol m track, trace, ombrederus meditative, omdedna v withdraw, omdhascor v submit, parchemynek made of parchment, pengasen f stomach, plattya v crouch, squat, pock m push, prod, polansek speculative, pols m pulse, posa v lean, pyltya v harass (also pelt), qwiet quiet, rainya v reign, rebellyans m rebellion, regyth col live coals, resek v run, rewy v freeze, rusk col bark (also rind, peel), rùttya v rub, scant scarce, scriven bedh f epitaph, sê m seat, sedhor m diver, sfynx m sphinx, skyl m nook, recess, sosten m food, grub, sprûs m spruce, sprûswëdh col spruces, stêvya v race, soar, sugna v suck, sùmya v sum up, syg f tie, trace, tavadow tangible, tervans m commotion, tomder m heat (also temperature), travalya v trudge, trek, tremenyans m passing, trygh triumphant, tùchya v light (cigarette, pipe) – also touch, tap, unver unanimous, vexya v vex, annoy, whybanor m moccasin (also slipper)

Airgelgh means ‘atmosphere’ in every sense including (here) a measure of pressure. Verb-noun aspias is an alternative form of aspia. The verb kyfethya which means ‘preserve’ (food) also corresponds to English ‘tan’ in the context of leather. Nôta is a ‘note’ in the sense ‘banknote’ and also of music; nôten is ‘note’ in a more general sense. Resek is ‘run’ when referring to something inanimate; contrast ponya which is the usual verb ‘run’ for animates, though resek may also be used.

Deskerny and scrynkya both mean ‘snarl’. The former emphasizes the teeth. Owt warnedha! means ‘damn them!’ Rogh means much the same as ronk. In the original English, Henry begins with a grunt that slides into a snore. Roghwherthyn is another compound of wherthyn (with inflected forms accordingly) meaning ‘chortle’. Sens dha glap! means ‘shut up!’

The title An Kiglergh translates the English original ‘The Trail of the Meat’. It has been coined specially for this purpose and has no wider currency.

Tewl o an forest sprûs, hag asper ryb an ryver rewys a bùb parth. An gwëdh o dystryppys gans dewetha gwyns a’ga gwyscas gwynn a rew, hag yth esens ow posa, dell hevelly, an eyl dh’y gela, du ha dargan-drog, i’n golow gyllys gwann. Taw efan o rainys der an pow. Oll an pow y honen o gwastyans, dyvew, heb gway vëth, mar dhyberthys, mar yêyn, mayth esa ino spyrys nag o unweyth tristans. Hynt a wharth yth esa, mès wharth moy uthyk ès pùb tristans – wharth heb merth, kepar ha min an Sfynx, wharth yêyn, par ha’n rew, ha kevrennak i’n anwhecter longus dhe dhyfaladêwder. Yth esa furneth eternyta, meur y vêstry ha dres kescomûnyans, ow wherthyn awos euvereth an bêwnans ha lavur an bêwnans. An Dyfeth o va, gwyls, rewys y golon, Dyfeth an North.

Saw bêwnans i’n tyller yth esa bytegyns, in mes i’n pow, hag owth erya. Lînen a geun a lavurya an ryver rewys ahës, ha tùch a’n bleydh i’ga syght. An blew warnodhans o leun a rew. Yth esa an anal ow rewy i’n air kettel dheuth a’ga min, owth êthenna in ewon a veu sedhys wàr vlew aga horf ha gwrysys dhe yey. Yth esa hernes lether wàr an keun, ha stegys êns y gans sygyow lether dhe garr slynkya o dreggys dhelergh. Dhe’n carr nyns esa gosel vëth. Ev o gwrës a rusk besow tew, hag oll y enep a’y eseth wàr an ergh. Greuv an carr o trailys in bàn, kepar ha rol barchemynek, rag constrîna myns hûjes an ergh medhel bys in danno, ha henna ow whethfy avell tonn dhyragtho. Wàr an carr, kelmys yn tiogel, yth esa box brâs, cul, hirbedrak. Yth esa taclow erel wàr an carr – lennow, bool, pot coffy ha lejer ganso; mès an dra moyha hewel, ow lenwel an moyha rann a’n carr, yth o an box brâs, cul, hirbedrak.

Arâg an keun, wàr skyjyow ergh ledan, y lavurya den. Adhelergh dhe’n carr y lavurya den aral. Wàr an carr, i’n box-na, yth esa tressa den, ha’y lavur ev o deu – an Dyfeth a wrug y fetha ha’y sqwattya bys na wre hemma gway vëth na strîvyans vëth nefra namoy. Nyns yw an Dyfeth ûsys dhe gara gwayans. An bêwnans yw despît dhodho, rag an bêwnans yw gwayans; ha porpos an Dyfeth pùb dëdh yw dystrêwy gwayans. Yma va ow rewy an ryver rag gwitha na alla resek dhe’n mor; yma ow trîvya an sùgan in mes a’n gwëdh erna vowns y rewys i’ga holon alosek; ha moyha fers oll ha moyha uthyk yma an Dyfeth ow pyltya hag ow cropya mab den dhe omdhascor – mab den, an moyha dybowes a bùb bêwnans, prest in rebellyans warbynn an dyth may fo res dhe genyver gwayans dos wosteweth dhe cessyans a’n gway.

Saw arâg ha dhelergh, heb aha, ha dydrygh, y lavurya an dhew dhen nag o marow na whath. Aga horf o cudhys in pelour ha lether kyfethys yn fedhel. Blew lagas ha bohow ha gwessyow o mar gednys gans gwrÿs an anal rewys, ma nag o gà fâss dhe weles. Rag hemma yth esa semlant dh’aga dew a warior gis tarosvanus, gwas orth encledhyas neb edhen corf in bÿs an bùckyas gwynn. Saw yth êns y tus in dann hemma oll, tus ow tewana an pow a wastyans hag a vockyans hag a daw, tus idhyl o porposys dhe unn aventur cowrek, owth offrynna gà honen warbynn gallos bÿs mar bell, mar estren, bohosak a bols avell an spâss inter an ster.

Y travalyens y heb cows, owth erbysy an anal rag whel aga horf. A bùb tu yth esa an taw, ow qwasca warnodhans gans presens o tavadow. Ev a nâsya aga brës kepar dell wra dowr lies airgelgh y dhownder nâsya corf an sedhor. Ev a’s compressa gans poos an efander dydhyweth ha’n rêwl na yller hy chaunjya. Ev a’s compressa bys in skylyow moyha aberveth aga brës, ow qwasca in mes anedha, kepar ha sùgan in mes a’n grappa, oll an fekyl-gwres ha’n exaltyans ha’n lies honen-valew nag yw gwyw i’n ena dhenyl, erna wodhyens y convedhes fatell êns y creaturs lymytys ha bian, namow ha mottys, ow môvya gwann aga felder ha bohes aga furneth in mesk gwary ha kesqwary elementys dall an gwylfos meur.

Passys veu unn our, ha’n nessa our. Y talathas fyllel golow dyscler an jëdh cot heb howl, pàn cry faint ha pell a dheuth dres cosoleth an air. Ev a stêvyas in bàn, uskys y fysk, erna wrug drehedhes y uhella nôta, le may turya, tynn ow teglena, ena mos marow yn lent. Y halsa bos kynvan enef o kellys, na ve neb conar drist dhodho ha whans nownek men. An den arâg a drailyas y wolok ha’y lagasow o lavar dhe lagasow an den dhelergh. Ena, hag intredhans an box cul, hirbedrak, an eyl a wrug inclynya dh’y gela an penn.

Y teuth secùnd cry, ow qwana an taw gans lymder kepar ha najeth. Oll an dhew dhen a wodhya tyller an son. Yth esa va dhelergh, neb plâss i’n ergh ledan a wrussons y tremena nowyth dresto. Tressa cry a dheuth in gorthyp, kefrÿs adhelergh hag aglêdh dhe’n secùnd cry.

“Orth agan helghya mowns y, Bill,” yn medh an den arâg.

Son y lev o hos hag afreal. Poos ganso, dell hevelly, veu côwsel.

“Kig yw scant,” a worthebys y goweth. “Nans yw lower dëdh na welys ol conyn vëth.”

Wosa hemma ny wrussons y cows namoy, mès sherp o gà scovarn rag criow an helgh esa whath ow sordya dhelergh.

Gans tewlwolow y a drailyas an keun ajy dhe vagas sprûswëdh wàr lann an dowr ha gwil camp. An eler, ryb an tan, a servya avell sê ha moos. Yth esa an keun-bleydhas, oll warbarth a’n tu aral dhe’n tan, ow kenkya in unn scrynkya an eyl orth y gela, heb dysqwedhes whans vëth a wandra in kerdh bys i’n tewlder.

“Dar, a Henry, mowns y ‘cortos nes dres ehen dhe’n camp,” Bill a gomplas.

Henry, neb o plattys ryb an tan rag gorra pot an coffy, ha darn rew etto, a sînas agrians. Ny wrug ev côwsel erna veuva esedhys wàr an eler ha dallath debry.

“Y a wor ple mowns y diogel,” yn medh. “Gwell yw gansa debry boos ès bos boos. Fur lowr yns y, an keun-na.”

Bill a shakyas y benn. “Ogh, nor’vy.”

Y goweth a wrug meras orto yn coynt. “Otta lavar an kensa tro ahanas nag yns y fur.”

“Henry,” yn medh an aral, ha densel an fav esa ev ow tebry in unn gùssulya, “a ny wrusta merkya fatell êth an keun in clowyowgh pàn esen vy orth aga boosa?”

“In gwir, y a wrug gwil fresca froth ès dell yw ûsys,” yn medh Henry hag assentya.

“A Henry, pan lies ky eus dhe ny?”

“Whe.”

“Wèl, Henry …” Bill a wrug hedhy tecken, rag may halla y er gwainya brâssa mênyng. “Dell esen vy ow leverel, Henry, yma whe ky dhyn. Me a gemeras whe pysk in mes a’n sagh. Me a ros unn pysk dhe bùb ky, ha, Henry, th’esa fowt dhèm unn pysk.

“Te a gomptyas yn camm.”

“Yma whe ky dhyn,” a dhasleverys an aral heb emôcyon. “Me a gemeras whe pysk in mes. Ny gafas Unn Scovarn pysk vëth. Me êth dhe’n sagh arta ha kerhes dhodho y bysk.”

“Nyns eus dhyn ma’s whe ky,” yn medh Henry.

“A Henry,” Bill a bêsyas, “ny vynnaf leverel yth êns y oll keun, saw th’esa seyth a gafas pysk.”

Henry a cessyas heb debry, rag tôwlel golok dres an tan ha comptya an keun.

“Nyns eus ma’s whe i’n eur-ma,” yn medh.

“Me a welas an aral ow ponya ’ves dres an ergh,” Bill a nôtyas, dyblans y don doth. “Me a welas seyth.”

Y goweth a wrug meras orto in kescovedhyans, hag yn medh, “Dâ vëdh genef a’m colon pàn vo an viaj-ma oll gorfennys.”

“Pandr’yw styr a henna?” Bill a wrug demondya.

“Tell usy gàn carg-ma owth ania jy, ha te ow mos ha gorweles.”

“Me a’m beus an keth preder,” Bill a worthebys yn sad. “Ytho, pàn y’n gwelys ow ponya ’ves dres an ergh, me a wrug meras wàr an ergh hag aspias y olow. Ena me a gomptyas an keun hag yth esa whe anodhans. Yma an olow dhe weles whath i’n ergh. A vynta meras orta? Me a wra showya dhis.”

Ny wrug Henry gortheby, mès densel ha tewel bys pàn dheuth in very penn an prÿs gans dewetha hanaf a goffy. Wosa glanhe y vin gans kil y dhorn, ev a leverys:

“Th’yw dha breder dhan dell veu –“

Cry hir y gynvan, trist y gonar, in mes a neb plâss i’n tewlder, a wrug goderry y gows. Ev a’n stoppyas rag golsowes; ena ev a worfennas y lavar gans gwêvyans a’y dhorn tro ha son an cry, “– onen anodhans y?”

Bill a sînas assentys. “Malbe damm a vensen cresy nampëth ken ès henna. Te dha honen a verkyas oll an tervans a wrug an keun.”

An eyl wosa y gela, yth esa criow, ha criow gortheby, ow trailya an taw dhe hùbbadùllya. A bùb tu y sordya an criow, ha’n keun a dhysqwedhy aga own, gyllys warbarth in gròn mar ogas dhe’n tan, may feu aga blew goleskys gans an tomder. Bill a dowlys moy cunys warnodho, kyns ès tùchya y bib.

“Dha spyrys, dell hevel dhèm, yw sedhys tamm isel,” yn medh Henry.

“A Henry …” Ev a sugnas y bib yn ombrederus rag nebes termyn, kyns pêsya. “A Henry, yth esen vy ow predery tell vëdh hemma fest gwynna y vÿs ès me pò te hogen.”

Ev a dhysqwedhas an ‘hemma’ dre bock wàr nans a’n bës brâs tro ha’n box mayth esens y a’ga eseth warnodho.

“Me ha te, Henry, pàn ven ny marow, gwynn agan bÿs mar pëdh meyn lowr dres agan caryn dh’y witha ev rag an keun.”

“Saw nyns eus pobel dhyn, na mona hag oll, dell esens dhe hemma,” Henry a worthebys. “Scant nyns eus mona dhèm na dhyso rag encledhyas pell dhort tyller an tremenyans.”

“An dra muskegy dhymmo, Henry, hèn yw pollat a’n par-ma, neb o arlùth pò haval in y bow y honen, ha na veu bythqweth troblys tùchyng sosten pò lennow, prag y fynna ev mellya in kenyver cornet innyal a’n nor – hèn yw an pëth na allaf ùnderstondya.”

“Y whrussa bêwa bys in henys teg mar teffa unweyth ha remainya tre,” y feu Henry unver.

Bill a egoras y anow dhe gôwsel, ha chaunjya ervirans. In le a henna, ev a wrug poyntya wor’tu ha’n fos a dewlder esa ow qwasca a bùb parth ader dro. Ny veu desmyk a form vëth i’n cowl-dhuder; nyns esa ma’s dewlagas ow colowy kepar ha regythen. Henry a dhysqwedhas gans y benn neb secùnd dewlagas, ha neb tressa. Kelgh a’n lagasow lenter a veu settys dhe’n camp in y gerhyn. Traweythyow dewlagas a wrug gwaya, pò mos mes a wel, hag apperya arta wosa tecken.

Encressys veu deray an keun, hag y a wrug ponya, desempys aga own, bys in tu ogas an tan, ow plynchya hag ow slynkya adro dhe arrow an dus. In oll an kesstrîf onen a’n keun a veu trebuchys wàr amal an tan, hag ev owth uja gans gloos hag euth, ha’n air o leun a fler y vlew goleskys. An kedrynn a wrug dhe’n kelgh a lagasow môvya rag tecken yn tybowes hag omdenna nebes kefrÿs, saw yth êth arta qwiet kettel veu an keun coselhës.

“Henry, malbe bùlettys a’gan beus.”

Bill a worfennas y bib hag yth esa va ow qwil gweres dh’y goweth rag gorra an golhes a belour ha lenn wàr scorednow an sprûs a wrug ev lêsa dres an ergh kyns soper. Henry a sonas ronk, ha dallath dylâcya y whybanoryon.

“Dro dhe’m cov, py lies cartryjen eus dhis whath?” ev a wovynnas.

“Try,” y feu an gorthyp. “Ha me ow whansa tryhans. Nena me a dhysqwa warnedha, mollath Duw i’ga glas!”

Ev a shakyas dorn yn serrys orth an lagasow pòr lenter, ha dallath posa y whybanoryon ev yn tiogel dhyrag an tan.

“Hag ow whansa spÿs an yêynder-ma dhe vos deu,” ev a bêsyas. “Hanter cans in dann an rewboynt nans yw dyw seythen solabrÿs. Hag ow whansa, a Henry, na wrussen vy bythqweth dos i’n viaj-ma. Nyns usy ow plegya màn. Th’esof owth omsensy coynt anodho. Ha me ow whansa, gweles an viaj gorfennys, ha me ha te a’gan eseth ryb an tan in Fort McGurry i’n very prÿjweyth-ma hag ow qwary crybaj – ot oll ow whans.”

Unn ronk arta, ha Henry ow cramyas ajy dhe’n gwely. Namnag esa va ow cùsca, ha lev y goweth orth y dhyfuna.

“Dar, Henry, an aral, neb a dheuth ha cafos pysk – prag na wrug an keun omsettya warnodho? Th’esof ow perthy awhêr a’n dra.”

“Awhêr dres otham, a Bill,” y teuth an gorthyp hunek. “Bythqweth ny veusta mar vexys kyns. Sens dha glap lemmyn, ha cùsca, ha ternos te a vëdh oll in poynt dâ. Dha dorr yw dystemprys, ot ancres dhis.”

An dhew dhen a gùscas, owth anella yn fen, tenewen orth tenewen, in dann an keth hudhes. An tan êth dhe lusow, ha’n lagasow lenter a glôsyas an kelgh a wrussons y tôwlel adro dhe’n camp. Yth esa an keun in unn bonny ownek, ow teskerny fâssow bÿth pàn dheffa dewlagas in nes. Unweyth aga thervans a veu mar vrâs, may whrug Bill dyfuna. Ev a savas in bàn gans rach, na wrella trobla cùsk y goweth, ha tôwlel moy cunys wàr an tan. Pàn wrug henna facly arta, kelgh an lagasow a dennas pella dhyworto. Bill a worras golok wallus orth an keun i’ga gròn. Ev a rùttyas y dhewlagas ha meras ortans yn lemma. Ena ev a gramyas arta i’n lennow aberveth.

“Henry,” yn medh. “A Henry.”

Henry a wrug hanaja, ow passya a gùsk bys in dyfuna, ha demondya, “Pandr’yw camm i’n tor’-ma?”

“Tra vëth,” y teuth an gorthyp; “marnas bos seyth anodhans arta. Namnygen me a’s comptyas.”

Henry a recêvas an derivadow-ma gans ronk a slyppyas bys in rogh, hag ev ow tryftya tre dh’y gùsk.

Ternos vyttyn y feu Henry an kensa dyfunys, hag ev a fêsyas y goweth in mes a’n gwely. Golow an jëdh o pell try our whath, kyn feu whegh eur solabrÿs; hag i’n tewlder Henry a wrug parusy hawnsel, ha Bill ow rolya an lennow hag ow tarbary an carr kyns kelmy oll.

“Dar, Henry,” ev a wovynnas sodyn, “ny leversys pan lies ky eus dhe ny?”

“Whe.”

“Camm.” Bill a’n declaryas yn trygh.

“Seyth ytho?” Henry a wrug govyn.

“Nâ, pymp; gallas onen.”

“An jowl!” Henry a grias engrys brâs, ha gasa an gegynieth rag dos ha comptya an keun.

“An gwir a leverta, Bill,” yn medh wosteweth. “Gallas Berryk.”

“Hag ev êth kepar ha luhesen pàn veu unweyth dalethys. Ny welys ma’s mog.”

“Chauns vëth,” Henry a dhetermyas. “Y a’n loncas bew. Owt warnedha! Sur yth esa owth ola brâs pàn êth dh’aga fengasen aberveth.”

“Pùpprÿs o va ky fol,” yn medh Bill.

“Saw ny dal ky fol màn bos mar fol hag omladha indella.” Ev a whythras an remnant a’n parra, polansek y wolok, ow sùmya teythy pùb best dystowgh. “Sur ny vensa ken onen gwil in ketelma.”

“Ny yllyn aga herdhya gans cûlbren dhort an tan,” Bill a wrug agria. “Ha me pùb termyn ow cresy bytegyns bos nampëth camm in Berryk.”

Awotta scriven bedh ky marow wàr fordh Pow an North – le scant ès scriven bedh lies ky aral, ages bedhscrif lies den.

Practys Dew ha Dêwgans - Exercise Forty Two

Pan vaner gwel wàr an bÿs yw dhe helerhy in kensa chaptra Dans Gwynn. Gwrewgh gortheby kebmys dell allowgh in Kernowek.

Orth versus ow (owth)

If a word is both an ordinary noun and a verb-noun, then it will be preceded by orth when functioning as an ordinary noun function but by ow (owth) when functioning as a verb-noun. For example, orth dallath an vledhen ‘at the beginning of the year’ but yma ow tallath ‘it is beginning’. In the passage from Dans Gwynn we encountered encledhyas as an ordinary noun meaning ‘burial’; this word also means ‘bury’ (verb-noun). So we say orth encledhyas ow thas ‘at my father’s funeral’ but yma hy owth encledhyas an tresour ‘she is burying the treasure’. Orth is always used, of course, when any word intervenes, including any possessive pronoun. We must be careful to avoid misunderstanding. The same phrase orth y encledhyas could mean ‘at his funeral’ or ‘burying him / it’, Sometimes these might come to the same thing. Sometimes we will be guided by the context – in the case of treasure, for instance, only the second meaning makes sense.

Practys Try ha Dêwgans - Exercise Forty Three

How would you say the following in Cornish?

I helped him report the theft. I helped him with the report of the theft. There were three people at their boss’s funeral. Three people were burying their boss. We’ll leave at dawn.

Beach conditions

Bertyl and Joana headed straight for Poldhu Cove in Lesson Five. Good luck parking the car! You should really check weather and sea conditions before visiting any Cornish beach. Here’s the sort of information you may find.

Gwethysy treth wàr dûta Lifeguards on duty

Badhya inter an banerow Bathing between the flags

Peryl resek a’n ladn Risk of rip currents

Morlenel ha tryg High and low tide

Tomder (in degrês Celsyùs) Temperature (in degrees Celsius)

Tomder dell yw clôwys Temperature feels like

Qwartron an gwyns Wind direction

Toth an gwyns (in mildiryow an our) Wind speed (in miles per hour)

Cowas gwyns bys (mildiryow an our) Wind gust (miles per hour)

Uhelder an todnow (in mêtrow) Wave height (in metres)

Leythter Humidity

Lycklod glebyans Probability of precipitation

Hewelder Visibility

Peryl ugh-violet (UV) UV risk

Second State mutation is usually omitted in the phrase wàr dûta.

Sixteen points of the compass

In Lesson Fifteen of Book Three we learned traditional Celtic names for the four principal compass points. We should now learn the sixteen compass points that are usually employed nowadays for precision. These are used, among other things, to indicate the direction from which the wind is blowing.

N north, NNE nor’nor’ëst, NE nor’ëst, ENE ëstnor’ëst, E ëst, ESE ëstso’ëst, SE so’ëst, SSE so’so’ëst, S soth, SSW so’sowest, SW so’west, WSW westso’west, W west, WNW westnor’west, NW nor’west, NNW nor’norwest

Spellings ëst and ÿst are always interchangeable, but the standard abbreviation is E.

Practys Peswar ha Dêwgans - Exercise Forty Four

How would you say the following in Cornish?

The temperature here on the beach at the moment is 22 degrees, and it’s even warmer in the sun; but the temperature of the water can’t be more than about 11 or 12. The wind’s very light, no more than five miles an hour maybe, and there are no gusts – blowing from the southwest, I think – really pleasant. The life guards are on duty, and there’s a notice saying we should only go in the sea between the flags. But I’ll be sunbathing for a while first. The UV’s already quite strong, so I’m using plenty of cream all over.

Some Cornish speakers employ a word tempreth for the idea of ‘temperature’. This coinage (inspired by Welsh) is not appropriate because Cornish tempra means ‘moderate’, so that tempreth would mean ‘moderation’ if it meant anything at all.

Practys Pymp ha Dêwgans - Exercise Forty Five

Write an email in suitable Cornish to your local council asking for a nasty pothole in front of your house to be repaired. You attach a photograph, with a ruler in frame showing that the hole is two inches deep. Heavy vehicles going over the pothole cause so much vibration your house literally shakes.

A pothole is toll (masculine) i’n fordh. Be careful not to confuse with toll fordh which is feminine and means ‘road tax’. The latter was originally meant to pay for repairing the former – alas, no more!

A ruler is lînednor. Use crenans for ‘vibration’. The phrase herwyth an lytheren means ‘literally’.

Alternating gender in measures of time and non-metric length

It may be useful to note as a memory aid that gender alternates in nouns for measuring time and non-metric (so called ‘imperial’) length. There are three alternating series. Time measured by the clock: secùnd m, mynysen f, our m. Time measured by the calendar: dëdh m, seythen f, mis m, bledhen f. The third series starts with a feminine noun: mêsva f, troos’hës m, lath f ‘yard’, erow’hës m ‘furlong’, mildir f.

We can also note that nouns of metric measure are always masculine; so are nouns of non-metric weight: ùns ‘ounce’, pens, menboos (also ston) ‘stone’, canspoos ‘hundredweight’, tona ‘ton’. A ‘fluid ounce’ is ùns glëb.

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LESSON DEG

LESSON TEN

Vocabulary

Here are some more new words.

act m act, ancar m anchor, ballyer m barrel, barbecuw m barbecue, beggyer m beggar, bolùnjeth m will, brenyas m bosun, coxswain, bùckanêr m buccaneer, canfas m canvas, chaplen m chaplain, cloghprednyer pl gibbet, côcha m coach, cog m cook, coljy m college, corrùpcyon m corruption, cowethya v associate, cristonya v christen, culyak m cock(erel), deneren f penny piece, despît m contempt, dowtya v fear (have misgivings) – also doubt, dre hap by chance, drogwas m scoundrel, dyvedhow sober (not drunk), errya v err, felshyp m crew, ferdhyn m farthing, flattra v flatter, cajole, flour unequalled, fortyn m fortune, fygùr m figure, fynyshya v finish, ganowas m mouthful, glebya v wet, golôwder m brightness, gôlyor m watchman, look-out, gool m sail, gorgis m distrust, suspicion, gortos v stay (in a state), gromyal m growl (also verb-noun), gwel m scene, gwyras f liquor, hanow m reputation, hevys m smock, shirt, i’n mên-termyn meanwhile, kemeres meth phr be ashamed, keybal m ferry boat, leugh m calf, marner m sailor, maroun m maroon, mênya v mean, methor m quartermaster (also caterer), morlader m pirate, mylega v curse, nown m hunger, omjùnya v join, paint m paint, paintya v paint, perthy own be afraid, peryllya v risk (also endanger), poder m worthless stuff (also decay, corruption), podyk m jug, pùdyn m pudding, qwarter m quarter, recknans m reckoning, sqwier m squire, stras m hold (of ship), styrya v mean, sùrjon m surgeon, tobackô (also backa) m tobacco, tonel f cask, keg, trâdwyns m trade wind, trestya v trust, trewa v spit, trueth m pity, vôta m vote, warbydn by (a particular time), worshyp m respect, admiration

Arâg ha dhelergh correspond to nautical English ‘for’ard’ and ‘aft’. The exclamation ay is a variant of hay.

The verb-noun fysky is employed as an ordinary masculine noun with the same meaning as fysk.

Just like English ‘every penny’, we may still say pùb deneren figuratively to mean ‘all the money’.

Pùdyn gorhal is ‘duff’. Note the phrase ry vôta ‘cast a vote’. The plurals termow and termys are alternatives. Warbydn obma means ‘by now’.

In the oath re Synt (or Sèn) Malan we have a mediaeval name (‘St Malignus’) for the Devil.

The imperatives war (ty-form) and waryowgh (why-form) mean ‘beware, watch out!’ There are no other forms of this verb.

Colloquial Cornish in literature

The translated pieces introduced in previous Lessons were all written in a relatively formal style of Cornish. In Treasure Island by Robert Louis Stevenson (1883) the gentrified speech of the principal adventurers is differentiated from the rougher speech of the pirate crew. This is not an attempt at strict realism since that would have gone beyond the literary conventions of Stevenson’s day. The pirates cuss and swear in the mildest of terms! The author does employ the distinction as a device to create vivid characters; but also, crucially in this ground-breaking Victorian novel for children, as a means of signalling who is essentially ‘bad’.

Treasure Island has been translated by Nicholas Williams as Enys Tresour, and the pirates of the story speak in a dliberately colloquial register of conversational Cornish. Here is Chapter 11, entitled An pëth a glôwys in ballyer an avallow.

Cabin boy Jim Hawkins, the narrator of the whole tale, has climbed into an almost empty apple barrel on the deck of the schooner Hispaniola as it approaches the island where the pirate Flint buried his treasure before he died. One-legged Long John Silver, the ranking member of Flint’s surviving crew, has deceived the gullible Squire Trelawney into hiring most of this crew (including himself as cook) for Trelawney’s own expedition to seek the treasure. Hawkins had suspicions from the outset, but only now discovers the truth when Silver, unaware he is overheard, sits down beside the barrel to interview another crew member.

At the end of the extract you will find notes that include comments on some of the colloquial forms.

“Â, nag en,” yn medh Silver. “Flint o an capten. Me o an methor, dre rêson a’m troos predn. I’n keth batel me a gollas ow garr ha Pew coth a gollas golok y lagasow. Mêster sùrjon a drohas ow garr dhyworthyf – in mes a’n coljy – meur a Latyn in y anow, ha taclow kepar; saw ev a veu cregys avell kei ha sehys i’n howl pecar ha’n remnant in Castel Corso. Anjei o tus Roberts, hag y wharva an dra dre rêson aga chaunjya henwyn aga lestry – Royal Fortune rag ensampyl. An hanow may fëdh gorhal cristonys gonja, gwrêns hedna remainya. Indella y feu an Cassandra, hei a’gan dros nei oll yn saw dhia Malabar, woja Inglond dhe sêsya an Viceroy of the Indies. Indella y feu an Mordarow, gorhal coth Flint – ha me a’s gwelas cudhys in goos cogh ha parys dhe sedhy gans carg a owr.”

“Â!” a grias lev aral, lev an den yonca i’n gorhal, hag ev dell hevelly leun a worshyp. “Ev o marner flour, Capten Flint!”

“Davis o gwas dâ inwedh, warlergh y hanow,” yn medh Silver. “Na wrug vy byscath golya in udn gorhal gonja. Kensa gèn Inglond, ha gèn Flint woja hedna, hèn yw ow whedhel vy. Me a worras in bàn naw cans yn saw, dhort Inglond i’n kensa le, ha dyw vil woja Flint. Nag yw hedna drog rag den dhyrag an wern – ha ma va oll saw i’n arhanty. Nag yw dendyl an pëth ewn, mès erbysy, why a ell bos certan a hedna. Ple ma tus Inglond lebmyn? Na worama. Ple ma tus Flint? Dar, an radn vrâssa nonjei, mown jei i’n gorhal-ma, hag anjei lowen dhe gawas pùdyn gorhal – beggyers o radn nonjei kyns lebmyn. Pew coth, neb a gollas y wolok, hag ev a alja kemeres meth, ev a spênas dêwdhek cans pens i’n vledhen, kepar hag arlùth i’n Chei an Arlydhy. Ple ma va lebmyn? Wèl, marow ywa hag in dadn an dor. Saw dres dyw vledhen dhyrag hedna, re’m bo crog, yth o va storvys dre nown! Beggyer o va ha lader, hag y fedha ow trehy briansen tus, ha woja pùptra ev o ogas marow dre nown, re Jovyn!”

“Wèl, nag yw vas woja pùptra,” yn medh an marner yonk.

“Nag yw vas rag fôlys, te a ell bos sur a hedna – hedna, bò tra vëth,” a grias Silver. “Saw ow tùchya dhis, mir obma. Te yw yonk, saw yth osta mar lew avell paint. Me a welas hedna pàn wrug vy dha weles rag an kensa prës, ha me a vedn côwsel orthys kepar hag orth den tevys.”

Why a yll desmygy fatla wrug vy omsensy pàn glôwys vy an drogwas uthyk-ma ow flattra gans an kethsam geryow a gowsas ev orthyf vy. Me a grës, a callen y wil, me a vynsa y ladha der an ballyer. I’n mên-termyn, ev a bêsyas, heb predery bos ken onen ow coslowes orto in dadn gel.

“Ot obma plit tus jentyl a fortyn. Mown jei ow pêwa garow, hag ow peryllya bos cregys, saw te a’s gwel ow tebry hag owth eva kepar ha culyogas omlath; ha pàn vo gorfednys viaj, anjei a gav lies cans pens kyns ès lies cans ferdhyn in aga focket. Now, an radn vrâssa a’n mona a vëdh spênys wàr dhowr tobm ha sport dâ, hag ena mown jei ow mos dhe’n mor arta heb tra vëth adro dh’aga heyn ma’s an hevys. Saw nag yw hedna an cors ragom. Th’erom ow corra pùb deneren anodha in bàn, nebes obma, nebes ena, heb gorra re i’n keth plâss rag goheles gorgis. Me yw hanter-cans bloodh, te a wel. Pàn vena dewhelys dhyworth an viaj-ma, me a vedn gwil den jentyl ahanam in gwiryoneth. Lowr a dermyn, te a laver. Â, saw me re beu ow pêwa yn êsy i’n mên-termyn, na wrug avy sconya tra vëth dhortama a garsa ow holon, ha me re gùscas medhel ha dainty oll ow dedhyow, marnas pàn esen wàr an mor. Ha pana vaner a wrug vy dallath? Kepar ha te, dhyrag an wern!”

“Wèl,” yn medh an den aral, “saw gyllys yw oll an mona aral lebmyn, a nag yw? Na elta dyswedhes dha fâss in Brystow woja hebma.”

“Dar, pleth esta ow soposya ow mona dhe vos?” a wovydnas Silver ha despît in y lev.

“In Brystow, in arhantiow ha tyleryow pecar,” a worthebys y goweth.

“Th’era an mona ena,” yn medh an cog, “pàn wrussyn ny derevel ancar. Saw ow mêstres goth a gemeras oll an mona warbydn obma. Hag yma an tavern Gweder Aspia gwerthys, prÿsles, chei ha bolùnjeth dâ. Ma an vowes goth wàr hy fordh i’n tor’-ma dhe vetya genam. Me a venja levarel dhis ple, rag th’erom orth dha drestya, saw hedna a venja sordya envy in mesk an gowetha.”

“Hag a elta jy trestya dha wreg?” a wovydnas an den aral.

“Nag usy tus jentyl a fortyn,” a worthebys an cog, “ow trestya an eyl y gela meur; ha ma an gwir gansans, che a yll bos sur a hedna. Saw me a’m beus fordh genama, ha hèn yw an gwiryoneth. Pàn wrella neb udn coweth whelas castya – onen neb yw ajwonys dhybm, th’erom ow mênya – na via bës pecar gans Jowan coth. Th’era radn nonjei ow perthy own a Pew, ha radn ow perthy own a Flint. Saw Flint y honen, ev a berthy own ahanam. Dowtys o va ha prowt. Anjei o an felshyp an moyha garow wàr an mor, tus Flint. An jowl y honen a wrussa bos dowtys dhe vos dhe’n mor gansans. Wèl, me a laver dhis lebmyn, na vedhama ow pôstya, ha te dha honen a wel pana êsy vedhama ow cowethya gans kenyver onen, saw pàn en vy an methor nag yw an ger ên ewn rag bùckanêrs coth Flint. Ha te a ell bos certan ahana jy in gorhal Jowan coth.”

“Wèl, me a laver dhe jy lebmyn,” a worthebys an maw, “nag era an lavur-ma ow qwarter-plegya dhybm erna veu an kescows-ma genen an eyl y gela, Jowan. Saw ot obma ow dorn dhis warnodha.”

“Ha te o gwas brav inwedh, ha glew kefrës,” a worthebys Silver, ow shakya dêwla mar golodnek, may whrug an ballyer crena, “ha fygùr tecka rag den jentyl a fortyn na welys vy byscath.”

Warbydn an prës-na me a dhalathas convedhes styr aga thermys. Pàn leverens “den jentyl a fortyn” apert o nag esens ow styrya moy bò le ès morlader kebmyn, ha’n gwel bian a wrug vy dre hap goslowes orto a veu martesen an act dewetha i’n corrùpcyon a onen a’n marners onest – martesen an marner onest dewetha i’n gorhal. Saw ow tùchya an mater-ma, me a wothvia yn scon, rag Silver a whybanas yn isel, ha’n tressa den a dheuth bys i’n tyller hag esedha rypthans.

“Hecka yw ewn,” yn medh Silver.

“Ô, me a woya dell o Hecka ewn,” a worthebys lev an brenyas, Israel Hands. “Nag ywa fol, Hecka, nag ywa nes.” Hag ev a drailyas y dobackô in y anow ha trewa. “Saw mir obma,” ev a bêsyas, “hèm yw an dra a garsen vy godhos, Barbecuw. Pana bellder a res dhe ny saval adenewen ha ryb tenewen kepar ha keybal melegys? Me re gavas lowr ogasty a Gapten Smollett. Yma va ow qwil mêstry warnam hir lowr, re Synt Malan! Me a garsa entra i’n cabyn-na. Me a garsa tastya aga thebmyn dainty ha’ga gwin.”

“Israel,” yn medh Silver, “nag eus dha bedn a brow ha na veu byscath. Saw te a ell gosowes, me a grës. Dhe’n lyha dha scovornow yw brâs lowr. Now, hèm yw an pëth a lavara’. Te a dal cùsca arâg, ha bêwa yn cales, ha te a wra côwsel yn clor ha gortos dyvedhow, erna wrellen comondya dhis. Ha te a ell bos certan a hedna, a vab.”

“Wèl, nag erom ow levarel nâ, erom?” yn medh an brenyas avell gromyal. “An pëth a lavara’ yw hebma: pana dermyn? Hèn yw an pëth a lavara’.”

“Pana dermyn! Re Jovyn!” a grias Silver. “Wèl, mar menta godhos pana dermyn, me a vedn leverel dhis. An prës dewetha a vo possybyl, ha hèn yw pana dermyn. Marner adhevîs yw Capten Smollett. Ma va ow colya an gorhal melegys ragon. Ot obma an sqwier ha’n medhek ha ma an mappa ha taclow pecar gansans – ny worama ple ma va, a worama? Ha na wodhesta dha honen naneyl. Rag hedna yth erom ow mênya hebma, an sqwier ha’n medhek a vedn trouvya an stoff, ha gwil gweres worth y worra i’n gorhal, re Jovyn. Nena nei a vedn gweles. A pen vy certan ahanowgh whei oll, whei vebyon a’n jowl, me a venja gara dhe’n Capten Smollet agan drei i’n gorhal hanter-for’ tre arta, kyns ès gweskel.”

“Dar, nei oll yw marners, me a grës,” yn medh an maw, Hecka.

“Nei oll yw marners dhyrag an wern, esta ow styrya,” a leverys Silver yn serrys. “Nei a ell lewyas, saw pyw a wra settya cors ragon? Hèn yw an tyller mayth owgh why ow fyllel dhe assentya, kensa ha dewetha. Mar teffen ha cawas ow bolùnjeth vy, me a venja gara Capten Smollett dh’agan drei arta bys i’n trâdwynsow dhe’n lyha. Nena na wrussyn ny errya i’gan recknans ha loas a dhowr kenyver jorna. Saw me a ajwon agas sort whei. Me a vedn fynyshya gansans i’n enys, kettel vo an tresour i’n stras, ha trueth a vëdh hedna. Saw nag owgh why lowen erna vowgh why medhow. Mollath Duw warnam, clâv oma i’m colon, pàn yw res dhybm golya gans tus pecar ha whei!”

“Kê wàr dha gabm, Jowan Hir,” a grias Israel. “Pyw ujy worth dha serry?”

“Dar, pygebmys gorhal uhel, a brederowgh why, a welys vy entrys, ha pygebmys gwas coynt ow seha i’n howl in Porth an Cloghprednyer?” a grias Silver. “Hag oll rag an keth fysky, fysky, fysky-ma. A glôwowgh why? Me, me a welas tra bò dew wàr an mor. Mar teffowgh why unweyth ha settya agas cors, ha poynt tro ha’n gwyns, why a venja marhogeth in côchys. Saw ny vednowgh whei! Me a’gas ajwon whei. Whei a gav agas ganowas a dhowr tobm avorow, ha dhe’n crog genowgh.”

“Pùbonen a woya te dhe vos sort a japlen, a Jowan. Saw ma ken re hag anjei a alja gwil an ober ha lewyas mar dhâ avellos dha honen,” yn medh Israel. “Y a gara nebes sport in gwir. Nag en jei mar uhel ha sëgh naneyl, saw anjei a gemera aga sport, pecar ha mâtys dâ, kenyver onen.”

“Ay,” yn medh Silver, “ha ple mown jei lebmyn, me a venja gofyn. Pew o den a’n par-na hag ev o beggyer pàn veu marow. Flint o indella, hag ev a veu marow a’n dowr tobm in Savanah. Â, anjei o felshyp wheg in gwir. Saw, ple mown jei lebmyn?”

“Mès,” yn medh Hecka, “pàn wrellen ny aga gorra adreus, pandra dal dhyn gwil gansans?”

“Ot an den ragom!” a grias an cog, meur y revrons. “Hèn yw an pëth erom ow kelwel negys. Gà gara wàr dhor sëgh avell marouns? Hèn o gis Inglond. Bò aga threhy dhe dybmyn pecar ha kebmys mogh? Hèn a via fordh Flint, bò fordh Billy Bones.”

“Billy o an den rag hedna,” yn medh Israel. “Na ell tus varow densel,” yn medh e. “Wèl ev yw marow y honen lebmyn. Ev a wor an hir ha’n cot anodho lebmyn. Ha mar teuth marner garow bys in porth byscath, hèn o Billy.”

“Te a laver gwir,” yn medh Silver, “garow saw parys. Mès waryowgh obma, me yw den êsy – me yw den jentyl, whei a laver. Saw mater sad ywa an termyn-ma. Dûta yw dûta, mâtys. Me a re ow vôta – mernans. Pàn vena i’n Seneth hag ow marhogeth i’m côcha, na vanama gweles onen vëth a dus laha an mor i’n cabyn-na ow tos tre, heb nei dh’aga gwetyas, pecar ha’n jowl in termyn pejadow. Gortowgh, me a laver, saw pàn dheffa an prës, dar, in ker’ gansans heb let!”

“Jowan,” yn medh an brenyas, “te yw den brav!”

“Te a vedn leverel indella, Israel, pàn wrelles y aspia,” yn medh Silver. “Saw me a vedn gofyn udn dra yn udnyk – Trelawny. Me a vedn wrestya y bedn leugh dhywar y gorf gèn an dhêwla-ma. Hecka!” ev a addyas ow terry y gows. “Te, gwra labma in bàn pecar ha maw dâ, ha cav dhybm aval rag glebya ow min.”

Why a yll desmygy an own brâs a’m kemeras. Me a vynsa lebmel in mes ha ponya rag ow bêwnans, mar teffen ha cafos an nerth, saw ow esely ha’m colon kefrës a fyllys. Me a glôwas Hecka ow tallath sevel, hag ena dell hevel, nebonen a’n stoppyas, ha voys Hands a grias:

“Ô, gwra ankevy hedna! Na wra sugna an poder-na, Jowan. Gerowgh ny dhe eva nebes dowr tobm.”

“Hecka,” yn medh Silver, “th’eroma worth dha drestya. Saw me a worras musur wàr an donel. Ot obma an alwheth. Lanow podyk ha dro va in bàn.”

Kynth o euth dhybm, ny yllyn heb predery hedna dhe vos fatla gefy Mêster Arrow an wyras a wrug y ladha.

Hecka o gyllys tecken, ha pàn nag esa ena, Israel a gowsas strait in scovarn an cog. Ny veu marnas ger bò dew na yllyn cachya, saw me a glôwas nowodhow a vry. Rag warbarth gans nebes lavarow erel a’n keth sort, me a glôwas an geryow-ma yn cler: “Na vedn den vëth aral omjùnya genen.” Apert o fatell esa tus lel whath i’n gorhal.

Pàn wrug Hecka dewheles, y aga thry a gemeras an podyk wosa y gela hag eva. Onen “Dhe fortyn dâ,” an secùnd “Dhe gov Flint coth,” ha Silver y honen, in sort a gân, “Dhe nei gàn honen. Ha senjowgh gàs gool, gobrow brâs ha sosten lowr.”

I’n eur-na golôwder a godhas warnaf i’n ballyer, ha pàn wrug vy meras in bàn me a welas bos an loor derevys, hag yth esa hy ow paintya top an wern gres hag ow terlentry yn spladn wàr ganfas an gool arâg. Hag i’n keth prës-na ogasty lev an gôlyor a grias, “Tir sëgh dhyragon!”

Notes

Roberts is the pirate Bartholomew Roberts (died 1722) who changed the name of several vessels he had captured to Royal Fortune. Castel Corso refers to a cape on the Gold Coast of Africa, now Ghana. Inglond is the pirate Edward England (died late 1720 or early 1721) whose ship was the Cassandra. Malabar refers to the west coast of India. Davis is Howell Davis (died 1719) whose pirate career lasted just 11 months.

Nicholas Williams wrote ‘Viceroy of the Indies’ in italics as if it were the name of a ship. In fact Silver is here sarcastically aggrandizing an individual, James Macrae, the original captain of the Cassandra. Macrae was set free by England after the pirates had taken over his ship. He later became Governor of Madras for the East India Company.

Flint and his ship Walrus are purely fictitious. But Savanah is real enough: it is the city of Savannah, founded in 1733 as the first capital of the Province of Georgia (nowadays the State of Georgia, one of the United States).

Mêster Arrow had been the mate on the Hispaniola. Despised by the men, he was frequently drunk; and one night he just disappeared, presumably overboard.

Gorra in bàn translates ‘lay by’ of the English original, in the sense ‘save up’. The metaphor in Cornish is the filling of a hayloft to feed cattle through the winter. Gorra adreus translates ‘lay athwart’, which is a term of sea-fighting meaning to fix the other ship by hooks and ropes alongside your own ship. An wern gres translates ‘the mizzen’ according to the literal etymology. But in practice the mizzen is the mast furthest aft on a three-masted ship. Williams may be confused about the rigging of the Hispaniola – later in the translation he writes canfas an wern arâg for ‘mizzen shrouds’.

Preposition ow tùchya becomes ow tùchya dhe with pronouns, hence ow tùchya dhis in the passage. The same applies for preposition tùchyng.

The following are all colloquial features. Silver uses na / nag instead of ny / nyns, but not consistently. Preposition a is used to link dre rêson to an ordinary noun. I’n keth batel me a gollas … ha Pew coth a gollas … Here ha links two parallel clauses after an keth; in more formal Cornish we might find the second one expressed as dell gollas Pew coth … Note en jei = êns y, fôlys = felyon, gonja = gansa (but Silver also gansans), levarel = leverel (an example of colloquial dissimilation), mown jei = ymowns y, nonjei = anodhans y (but Silver also anodha), saval = sevel (an example of colloquial assimilation), woya = wodhya (an example of consonant simplification). Gofyn = govyn (spelled gofen in the list of colloquial forms appended to Book Three).

Colloquially vowel e can often replace vowel y, just as there can occasionally be alternation even in quite formal Cornish (kechys alongside kychys, for instance): here we have tebmyn = tybmyn; for menta = mynta, compare the Head Teacher’s me a vedn in Book Two, Exercise 36, and the third pupil’s dèr vednen nyny in Book Three, Exercise 52. Conversely, vowel y occasionally replaces vowel e, as in gofyn (= govyn), corresponding to gofen in the list of colloquial forms appended to Book Three.

Williams employs the spelling ei for final stressed y to suggest more strongly the actual pronunciation: kei for ky, anjei for anjy, etc. This device has been borrowed from the distinct spelling system known as the ‘Standard Written Form’, which is not consistent with Standard Cornish orthography; it is not recommended for everyday use.

Copula imperfect tense of bos in colloquial Cornish

In the passage from Enys Tresour Israel Hands says en jy (spelled en jei in the text), which is not radically different from formal Cornish êns y ‘they were’. But the copula (short form) imperfect tense of bos is often considerably reduced in colloquial speech so that most forms become indistinguishable from the corresponding present tense. A typical result for the three singular forms would be om (or o’vy), os (or o’chy), o; and o’ny, o’why, on jy for the three forms of the plural. Adverbial expressions are used to distinguish present and imperfect sense when the context alone is not sufficient.

Practys Whe ha Dêwgans - Exercise Forty Six

In bewgraf (‘biography’) Jowan Hir Silver an auctour a wrug kemysky fêthyow ha fycsyon warbarth. Fatell usy an teknyk-ma owth obery rag byldya agan godhvos ha’gan breus a’n caracter? Gwrewgh gortheby, kebmys a yllowgh, in Kernowek.

Obery ‘work, operate’ always has an idea of accomplishment about it as well.

Practys Seyth ha Dêwgans - Exercise Forty Seven

Cornwall has 300 miles of coastline, and seafaring is an indispensible part of its heritage. Using the Vocabulary at the end of the Book for the technical terms, read the following summary of many key features of marine vessels.

Scûner yw lester a’n jeves golyow alînys rag ha dhelergh. Auctour Enys Tresour a wrug avowa, wosa an novel dhe vos dyllys, fatell via bryg – hèn yw, gorhal ha golyow pedrak dhodho – lester moy realystek dhe’n whedhel, saw ny wodhya ev descrefa golyans a’n par-na yn ewn. I’gan dedhyow ny, pàn nag eus lies gorhal golyow namoy, yma dhe’n byhadna scath golyow Bermûda yn fenowgh: gool brâs (ha predn brâs ganso) ha jyb wàr an kethsam gwern i’n câss kebmyn, ha dhe bùb gool yma lovan rag y dherevel (an rôp hâlya) ha lovan rag y rêwlya (an rôp golya). Chif-radnow a gorf an lester yw an pedn arâg, an delergh, ha keyn an lester. In brâssa lestry, ha pùpprës i’n gorholyon, yma flûrys ha chy ros pò pons lewyas. Carg yw gorrys in strasow. Yma an gorhal sensoryon ha’n tanker inwedh. Ha’n keybal degadoryon. Cûcow yw lestry pyskessa; i’n jëdh hedhyw oll anodhans yw cûcow jyn. Udn sort a gôk, pòr vysy yn economek, yw an côk draylya. I’n byhadna scathow yma treusprednyer rag esedha warnodhans, hag y hyller lewyas an lester der ebyl adar ros lew. Dhe lies scath golyow yma astell cres rag istyna keyn an lester yn town, may halla an scath golya ogas dhe’n gwyns yn effethus.

Practys Eth ha Dêwgans - Exercise Forty Eight

Dell leverys an Logosen Dhowr dhe’n Goodh’or, “Crës dhybm, ow hothman yonk, nag eus tra vëth – tra vëth in oll an bës a dal y wil hanter-kebmys avell gwary adro in scathow.” Mès dhe’n brâssa radn ahanan, res yw drîvya carr meur moy menowgh ès dell yllyn ny mos in scath. Ow checkya geryow in pedn dewetha an Lyver-ma, redyowgh an berrscrif usy ow sewya, may ma lies term teknegyl yw perthynus dhe’n kerry.

Y kefyr kerry petrol, kerry dîsel, kerry tredanek. Wàr an dyweth, acordyng dhe’n gosten ‘Zêrô Elyn’ (hèn yw, lehe gorvok carbon yn pòr grev), ny vëdh kerry nowyth a’n kynda petrol pò dîsel gwerthys na felha i’n bledhydnyow usy ow tos. Saw i’n present termyn pîlyow lythyùm-ion yw poos ha helosk yn peryllys mara pedhons y cargys re; na nyns eus hedhes fest hir dhodhans; ha scant nyns eus tyleryow carga lowr der oll an pow. Hell yw pobel, rag hedna, i’ga herensa a'n kerry tredanek i’n tor’-ma.

Ny yller drîvya carr heb cubmyas lewyas, ha res yw spêdya in apposyans rag gwainya cubmyas parhus. Mar teth ha trespassya orth lahys trafyk an fordh, why a yll recêva ‘poyntys wàr dha gubmyas’, ha kelly an cubmyas mar pëdh lies poynt pò mar trespassyth yn frâs.

Dhe lies carr yma treuscorrans automatek. Kynth yw gwell gans radn a’n bobel whath an kerry a’s teves kyst maglednow dre dhorn, yma lies huny ow tyby bos an grafel hag omdôwlel gans gwelen an maglednow trobel tydn dres otham.

Dre vrâs yma an jyn in dadn an cûgh, ha dhe garr peswar daras y fëdh côfyr wàr an tu delergh. Hanow coth y gis rag carr pymp daras yw carr tir. Saw gwell rag drîvya in tireth tyckly yw herdhyans peder ros. Clos to yw vas rag don dywrosow; kyst to yw fytty rag moy fardellow.

Dhe bùb carr yma uskys’heor ha frodnel, frodn dhorn kefrës, ha ros lewyas. Wàr goloven an ros yma controllyans a’n menegoryon, a dheseghyeryow an skewwyns, ha rag inclynya an penlugern. An vusurel toth yw meur hy fris awos bos finweth toth wàr bùb fordh, ha môtorfordh kyn fe. Strait yw an rêwl gwysca grugys eseth, ha’n dyfen heb ûsya fon i’n dorn pàn esos ow lewyas. In lies carr yma airêwnans, daffar rag seny radyô ha mûsyk, ha hensador electronek rag gedya dhe’n fordh ewn.

Wàr garrhens dewblek ha wàr vôtorfordh yma dew hens pùb termyn; try hens pò moy wàr vôtorvordh in lies tyller. Dhe vôtorfordh yma gladn gales dre vrâs, saw traweythyow yth yw hobma ûsys kefrës rag daromres. In cres carrhens dewblek pò môtorfordh yma scooskê, ha kew gres pàr hap inwedh. Pàn eus kebryow paintys wàr an fordh, res yw gwitha pellder ispoyntek inter oll an degadoryon. Ny yller jùnya dhe vôtorfordh na’y gasa marnas dre rybfordh orth onen a’n kes’hensy; cunys, carg tredanek, ha sosten yw dhe gafos in kenyver othomva. Wàr fordhow erel y hyller powes in rypsav, yw sînys P (hèn yw, parkya) in lies câss; saw re venowgh ymowns y leun a kertys hir!

Practys Naw ha Dêwgans - Exercise Forty Nine

Gwell rag an omgelgh ès mos in carr yw mos adroos pò wàr dhywros trosella. Owth ûsya an erva in pedn dewetha an Lyver-ma, redyowgh an berrscrif usy ow sewya, ha termow teknegyl etto yw longus dhe’n gerdhoryon ha dhe’n margh horn.

Pùb tyller mayth eus cauns, res yw dhe’n kerdhor tremena warnodho. In ketelma, an dywrosyth a res marhogeth wàr an hens dywrosa pynag oll may fo provies. Delvrysek rag tremenysy adroos yw grugys kerdhes, ma nag eus gwir vëth dhe gerry. Saw traweythyow, pàn nag eus cauns vëth, ny vëdh ken dôwys ma’s kerdhes wàr an fordh hy honen – nosweyth yth yw hedna spessly peryllys ha res porrês don torchen dhâ, a vëdh ow tewynya tys ha tas, ha gwysca hevys hewel melen.

Dywros yw tra sempel: fram, ha hebma a’n jeves trester uhel warlergh ûsadow an jëdh hedhyw, mès traweythyow an trester yw iselha rag may halles eskyna yn êsya; yma dyw ros a’n keth myns, dewdhorn, dyber, trosellow kelmys dhe’n ros dhelergh dre jain; ha frodnow arâg hag adhelergh. Saw in gwrioneth nyns yw an ‘margh horn’ gwrës a horn na felha, bohes venowgh a’n dur naneyl: yma scaffa kesolcanow lebmyn. Ha dre lies maglen y hyll an dhywros arnowyth resek snell, na nyns eus otham namoy a skydnya rag herdhya wàr veneth in udn gerdhes.

Practys Deg ha Dêwgans -Exercise Fifty

Write an email in suitable Cornish to the legal department of the grocery company whose delivery driver carelessly reversed his van into the metal guttering above the front bay-window of your house when he arrived to make a delivery to your neighbour. You attach a photograph of the damage. You’ve obtained a quotation for repair from the contractor who installed the original guttering, with whom you were very satisfied, so you’re not interested in giving the work to anyone else; you expect the delivery company to reimburse you in full.

A gutter is launder and guttering is launderweyth, both masculine nouns. Kilfenester is a bay-window. A quotation in the sense of a fixed price for the job is pris profys; distinguish towlcost, which is an estimate. Cowethas lyfrêson is a delivery company. Groceries are gwara boos – a singular noun in Cornish (though some treat it as collective).

Second State of gr

The Second State of gr is regularly r, as in a radhva leun ‘full scale’ or in dadn rug ‘under heather’. But many words resist mutation: dew gràm ‘two grams’ for example. A few words form their Second State as if in First State they began gwr: these are grauntya ‘grant’ > wrauntya (but the noun graunt resists mutation); verb growedha > wrowedha and noun groweth > wroweth, as in a’y wroweth ‘lying (down)’ – compare a’y eseth and a’y sav; grugys > wrugys (and its derivatives).

More about mutation of gw

This will also be a good place to note that mutation of First State gw does not invariably follow what has been established as the ‘rules’. We occasionally find gw > Fifth State wh after ’th. Conversely we sometimes find gw > Second State w after particle y.

**********

LESSON UDNEK

LESSON ELEVEN

Vocabulary

Here are some more new words.

bargydnya rag agree (something contractually), ber m spit (for roasting), Beryan Buryan (that is, Eglos Beryan St Buryan), bos avîsys make up one’s mind, Chy Wûn Chywoone, colhan f sheath knife, cona v dine, sup, dagyer m dagger, dewas-wreg f pot-girl, barmaid, dos warbydn encounter, dremas m good man, fria v free, gon m gown, gorseans m praise, hordh m ram, jùstys m magistrate (also justice), managh m monk, marchont m merchant, Marhas Yow Market Jew, myken f animosity, ôstes f hostess, pîss m piece, repôsya v repose, sleep, Selevan St Levan

The interjection hâ ‘hi’ is nowadays more usually said as how.

Poynt a skians is a maxim.

Colloquial Cornish in literature – the historical record

Nicholas Boson (died 1708) has left us the tale of Jowan Chy an Hor’ (John of Chyannor) from the 1660’s. A phonetic transcription was made by early linguist Edward Lhuyd and published in 1707. The text is here reproduced in Standard Cornish, but faithful to the original idiom. At the end of the passage you will find notes that include comments on the various colloquial usages.

Why not set yourself the challenge of learning Jowan Chy an Hor’ for recitation aloud. Having the story by heart, mastering every detail of its idiomatic content, will be an excellent platform for further developing your own colloquial Cornish; and it will empower you to speak with authority about keeping the revived language true to its attested tradition.

¹ I’n termyn eus passyes th’era trigys in Selevan den ha benyn in teller cries Chy an Hor’.

² Ha an whel a codhas scant; ha medh an den dha y wreg, “Me a vedn mos dha whilas whel dha ’ul, ha why ell dendyl gàs bôwna’s obma.”

³ Cubmyas teg ev a kemeras, ha pell dha ëst ev a travalyas, ha wàr an dyweth e rug dhos dha chy tiak, ha rug whilas ena whel dha wil.

⁴ “Pana whel a’llosty gwil?” medh an tiak.

“Pùb whel oll,” a’medh Jowan. Ena ’njy a vargynnyas rag try pens an vledhen gober.

⁵ Ha pà th’era dyweth an vledhen, y vêster a dhysqwedhas dhodho an try pens.

“Mir, Jowan,” medh y vêster. “Obma dha gober. Bès mar menta ry dhèm arta, me a dhesca dhis ken poynt a skians.”

⁶ “Dr’ew hedna?” medh Jowan.

“Nâ,” medh y vêster. “Ry dhèm, ha me a vedn laveral dhis.”

“Kemerew’ dhan,” medh Jowan.

Nena medh y vêster: “Kemmer with na wre’ gara an vorr goth rag an vorr nowyth.”

⁷ Nena anjy a vargynnyas rag bledhen moy, rag pecar gober. Ha pà th’era dyweth an vledhen, y vêster a dhros an dry pens.

“Mir, Jowan,” medh y vêster. “Obma dha gober. Bès mar menta ry dhèm arta, me a dhesca dhis ken poynt a skians.”

⁸ “Pandr’ew hedna?” medh Jowan.

“Nâ,” medh y vêster. “Ry dhèm, ha me vedn lavarel dhis.”

“Kemerew’ dhan,” medh Jowan.

Nena medh y vêster: “Kebmer with na wre’ ôstya in chy lebma vo den coth demedhys dha benyn yonk.”

⁹ Ena ’njy a vargydnyas rag bledhen moy. Ha pà th’era dyweth an vledhen, y vêster dhros an try pens.

“Mir, Jowan,” medh y vêster. “Obma dha gober. Bès mar menta ry dhèm arta, me a dhesca dhis an gwelha poynt a skians oll.”

¹⁰ “Pandr’ew hedna?” medh Jowan.

“Nâ,” medh y vêster. “Ry dhèm, ha me a lavar dhis.”

“Kemerew’ dhan,” medh Jowan.

Nena medh y vêster: “Bedhys gweskys dhywwe’th kyn gweskel unwe’th, rag hedna yw an gwelha poynt a skians oll.”

¹¹ Lebmyn Jowan, e na venja servya na velha, bès e venja mos tua dha y wreg.

“Na,” medh y vêster, “rew’ mos hedhyw ha ma gwreg vy o’pobas mettyn; ha hy ra gwil tesen ragos, dha dhos dre dha dha wreg.”

¹² Ha anjy a worras an naw pens i’n desen. Ha pà ruga Jowan kemeres y cubmyas, “Obma,” medh y vêster, “ma tesen ragos dha dhon dre, dha dha wreg. Ha p’o ty ha dha wreg an moyha lowen warbar’h, nena g’rew’ terhy an desen, na hens.”

¹³ Cubmyas teg e kemeras, ha tua ha tre e travalyas; ha wàr an dyweth e rug dhos dha Gûn Sèn Eler. Ha ena ev a vetyas gèn try verchant a Tre Rin, tus pluw, tos dre mes a’n fer Caresk.

¹⁴ “Hâ, Jowan,” a’medh anjy, “Duw genen ny. Lowen on ny dh’agas gweles why. Py le a veu’ty mar bell?”

¹⁵ A’medh Jowan, “Me a veu servya, ha lebmyn th’eram mos dre dha ow wreg.”

“Hâ,” medh anjy. “Ews bar’ha ny, ha welcùm ty a vëdh.”

¹⁶ Anjy a kemeras an vorr nowyth, ha Jowan a gwithas an vorr goth.

¹⁷ Ha mos ryb keow Chy Wûn, ha nag o an varchants gyllys pell dhort Jowan, bès ladorn a glenas ort anjy. ¹⁸ Ha anjy a dhalathas dha wil cry. Ha gans an cry a rug an varchants gwil, Jowan a grias awedh. “Ladorn, ladorn!” ¹⁹ Ha gans an cry a rug Jowan gwil, an ladron a forsâkyas an verchants. Ha pà rug anjy dhos dha Varhaj Yow, ena anjy a vetyas arta.

²⁰ “Hâ, Jowan,” a’medh anjy. “Senjys on ny dha why. Na via rago’why, ny a via tus oll dyswrës. Deus bar’ha ny, ha welcùm ty a vëdh.”

²¹ Ha pà rug anjy dhos dha’n chy lebma gôt’fia anjy ôstya, a’medh Jowan, “Me dal gweles an ost a’n chy.”

²² “An ost a’n chy?” a’medh anjy. “Pan tra venta gwil gèn an ost a’n chy? Obma ma gàn ôstes ny ha yonk ew hy. Mar menta gweles an ost a’n chy, kê dha’n gegyn, ha ena ty a’n cav.”

²³ Ha pà rug e dhos dha’n gegyn, ena e welas an ost a’n chy, ha den coth o e, ha gwadn, o’trailya an ber. ²⁴ Ha a’medh Jowan, “Obma na vadna’vy ô’tya, bès i’n nessa chy.”

“Na whath,” medh anjy. “Gwres cona abar’ha ny, ha welcùm ty a vëdh.”

²⁵ Lebmyn an hôstes a’n chy, hy a gùnsulyas gèn neb unn vana’h a era i’n tre, ha dha destria an den coth i’n gwely in termyn an nos, ha rest a’njy o’repôsya, ha gorra an fowt wàr an verchants. ²⁶ Ha pà th’era Jowan i’n gwely, th’era toll in tâl an chy, ha ev a welas golow. Ha e savas a’màn a’mes y wely. Ha ev a gosowas. Ha e glôwas an mana’h laveral, ha trailyes y geyn dha an toll: “Martesen,” a’medh ev, “ma nebonen i’n nessa chy, a wrug gweles agan hager-oberow.” Ha gans hedna an gwadn-gerty gans ’y follat a dhestrias an den coth i’n gwely.

²⁷ Ha gans hedna Jowan gans y golhan, trohas (der an toll) mes a keyn gon an mana’h pîss pòr rownd.

²⁸ Ha nessa mettyn an gwadn-gerty, hy a dhalathas dha wil cry tèr veu ’y thermas hy destries. Ha rag na era den na flo’h i’n chy bès an verchants, anjy dhal creg ragta.

²⁹ Ena anjy a via kemerys, ha dha an clogh-prednyer ’njy a veu lêdyes. Ha wàr an dyweth Jowan a dheuth wàr aga fydn.

³⁰ “Hâ, Jowan,” medh anjy. “Ma cales lùck dha ny. Ma agan ost ny destries newher ha ny dal creg ragta.”

³¹ “Why oll? Meur a whel a’n jù’tycyow!” a’medh Jowan. “Gor tèr o an dhes-reg! Hy mana’ rug an bad-ober.”

³² “Pywa?” y’medh anjy. “Pyw a rug an bad-ober?”

“Pyw a wrug an bad-ober?!” medh Jowan: “Mar ny’s medra’ dheffa prevy pyw a rug an bad-ober, my a vedn creg ragta!”

³³ “Laverow’ dhana,” medh anjy.

“Newher,” medh Jowan, “pà th’era’vy itta ow gwely, my a welas golow, ha my savas a’màn, ha th’era toll in tâl an chy. ³⁴ Ha neb unn mana’h a trailyas y geyn warbydn an toll. ‘Martesen,’ medh ev, ‘ma nebonen i’n nessa chy a ell gweles agan hager-oberow.’ ³⁵ Ha gans hedna gèn ow holhan me trahas pîss (der an toll) mes keyn gon an mana’, pîss pòr rownd. Ha rag gul ow geryow-ma dha vos prevys, obma ma an pîss et ow focket dha vos gwelys.”

³⁶ Ha gans hedna an varchants a veu fries, ha an venyn ha’n mana’h a veu kemerys ha cregys.

³⁷ Nena anjy a dheuth warbar’h mes dha Varhaj Yow. Ha wàr an dyweth ’njy rug dos dha Coos Kernwhyly in Beryan. ³⁸Nena th’era vorr dyber’h; ha an varchants a venja arta dha Jowan mos dre bar’ha ’njy. Bès rag an termyn e na venja, mès e venja mos dre dha y wreg.

³⁹ Ha pà th’o ev gyllys dhort an varchants ev a dhylâjas an termyn, m’alha va prev era y wreg gwitha compes et y gever, era pò nag era. ⁴⁰ Ha pà rug e dos dha’n daras, ev a venja clôwes den aral i’n gwely. Ev a wasca y dorn wàr y dagyer dha dhestria an dhew. Bès e brederas tèr gotha dhodho bos avîsyes dhywwe’th kyn gweskal unwe’th. ⁴¹ Ha ev a dheuth a’mes arta. Ha nena e gnakyas.

“Pywa eus ena, in bar’ Duw?” a’medh hy.

⁴² “Th’era’vy obma,” medh Jowan.

“Re Faria, pyw a glôw’vy?” medh hy. “Mars o’why Jowan, dew’ chy.”

“Doroy an golow dhana,” medh Jowan.

Nena hy a dhoroas an golow. ⁴³ Ha pà rug Jowan dos chy, medh ev, “Pà rug avy dos dha’n daras, me a venja clôwes den aral i’n gwely.”

⁴⁴ “Hâ, Jowan,” medh hy. “Pà rugo’why mos kerr, th’era’vy gyllys try mis gèn lho’h, ha lebmyn ma dha ny meppyk wheg i’n gwely, dha Dhuw re bo gorseha’s.”

⁴⁵ Medh Jowan, “Me vedn laveral dhys. Ow vêster ha ow vêstres ros dhèm tesen ha laveras dhèm, pàn vo my ha’m g’reg an moyha lowen warbar’h, dha terry an desen, ha na hens. Ha lebmyn ma câss dha ny rag bos lowen.”

⁴⁶ Nena ’njy a dorhas an desen, ha th’era naw pens i’n desen. Ha an mona anjy a gavas; ha’n bara ’njy a dhabras; ha ny veu udn froth na myken na tra wàr an norvës.

Ha andella ma dyweth me daralla dhodhans.

Notes

Although the text as recorded by Lhuyd generally spells pre-occluded bm and dn, we find bargynnya, kemmer, unn alongside their pre-occluded equivalents. Neb unn without pre-occlusion suggests that this combination may be treated as if it were a single word.

Fordh and kerdh appear as vorr and kerr; this is the convention for these words. In similar cases (bar’ for barth, hor’ for hordh) an apostrophe is used, but the same pronunciation (with short vowel) will apply.

In the story imperatives of more than one syllable mostly end in ewgh (clipped to ew’) rather than owgh. The ending ewgh was selected by Nance for all revived Cornish imperatives, and many speakers today continue this approach.

An dry pens (formal Cornish an try fens) illustrates the somewhat optional nature of Third State mutation after try, and also a tendency colloquially for try itself to undergo Second State mutation after an (compare regular dew, an dhew).

In anjy a via kemerys the tense retains its original pluperfect force, recounting a sequence of events: it was once they had been arrested that they were led to the gibbet.

Caresk is an alternative form of Keresk – both are in general use today.

Cùssulya gans nebonen dhe wil neppÿth means to plan or plot with someone to do something. Gwadn-gerty (formal Cornish gwadn-wre’ty) is an unfaithful wife; by ’y thermas (formal Cornish hy dremas) the woman means her husband.

Dhal is an example of colloquial double mutation : formal Cornish tal > a dal, then idiomatically a dal > dhal.

Duw genen ny is an alternative to Duw genes; there is a more inclusive feel about it.

Gor tèr (also Gor tr’), literally ‘know that’, can idiomatically replace particle yth before forms of bos beginning with a vowel for emphasis. As the example in the passage shows, it is a fixed expression, regardless of how many people are being addressed.

Ha ma wreg o’pobas mettyn means ‘while my wife is at her morning baking’: Jowan is asked to wait till his ‘cake’ is ready. The tesen may in fact have been a loaf rather than a cake in the modern sense, for at the end of the tale it is referred to as bara.

Kemeres with na is here used with the present-future tense, rather than the subjunctive that would be proper in formal Cornish. While the subjunctives of bos and dos remain vigorous in colloquial Cornish, there is a strong tendency to replace all others with an indicative tense.

Most edited versions of Jowan Chy an Hor’ omit ken from paragraph 5, on the assumption the word has crept into the text in error, under the influence of paragraph 7. This is a misunderstanding of the sense of ken, which does not correspond precisely to English ‘another’. The sense is ‘a maxim instead’.

Ladorn for ladron is a common reversal (metathesis); we also find it in eborn for ebron, and in the name Cambron captured in English as Camborne. Likewise note terhy for trehy in paragraph 12.

Mar ny’s medra’ dheffa prevy pyw a rug an bad-ober … This is indignation. “If I don’t aim at you (that is, lay before you) [what] will [come to] prove who committed the crime …” We must understand pëth a before dheffa (formal Cornish dheffa ha). The infixed pronoun ’s is a shortened form of ’gas; likewise infixed pronoun ’n may be a shortened form of ’gan. We find these abbreviated forms in the earliest poetry.

Marchont and merchont are alternative forms in general use today, both appear in the text, but in every case the vowel of the second syllable has been given as a, since this is what we find consistently in Lhuyd’s transcription; this has no effect on the sound of this unstressed vowel. The consonant combination nts that is written wherever the plural appears in the transcription has also been retained, though the modern plural ends in ns, unequivocally without the t sound.

Meur a whel a’n jù’tycyow! is sarcastic. There has been no trial at all; not even proper consideration of the evidence. This expression also usefully demonstrates how preposition a after a noun can mean ‘by’ notwithstanding that modern Cornish generally prefers gans. So we can say, for example, either Enys Tresour a Robert Louis Stevenson or Enys Tresour gans Robert Louis Stevenson.

The conditional tense of mydnas is employed in the sense of ‘wishing’ / ‘wanting’; we first noted this usage in Lesson Seven of Book Three. In ev a venja clôwes den aral i’n gwely the ‘would’ sense is extended differently, to mean ‘he thought he heard someone else in the bed’.

Welcùm is an alternative form of wolcùm.

The following features occurring in the text are all colloquial. There is some interchange of initial f and v. Preposition abarth is used in the sense ‘along with’ (formal Cornish gans … warbarth), and there are inflected forms such as abartha ny and abartha ’njy. A verb may be changed to assonating a when making the -as form of its inflected preterite. Future tense form bedhys is used as equivalent to imperative bëdh; similarly, present-future form gwres (formal Cornish gwreth) is substituted for imperative gwra; apparently ews in paragraph 15 means the same as deus, perhaps influenced by ewgh. The phrase gôt’fia anjy for more formal goothvia dhedhans illustrates how this construction could be managed colloquially. Possessive pronoun ow is followed by Second State of mêster and mêstres; and a much older form of this possessive pronoun appears in the final (formulaic) sentence as me. Any medial rr may become rh – in more formal Cornish this phenomenon is confined to the comparative adjectives; likewise medial ll may become lh where this is not usually recognized in formal Cornish: as in subjunctive galla > galha. Suffixed pronoun -ty takes the place of -ta, with yllysta appearing as ’llosty. Particle yth (as th’) is employed between pà and forms of bos beginning with a vowel. Verb yn medh is generally reduced to either a’medh or simply medh.

Here are some specific colloquial forms not already noted at the end of Book Three.

chy ‘ajy’, creg ‘cregy’, cùnsulya ‘cùssulya’, des-reg ‘dewas-wreg’, dhyweyth ‘dyweyth’, doroas ‘dros’ (preterite of dry), dr’ew ‘pandr’yw’, dylâjas ‘dhylâtyas’, gorseha’s ‘gorseans’, hôstes ‘ôstes’, in màn (or a’màn) ‘in bàn’, lho’h ‘flogh’, itta ‘in’, mes dha ‘mes a’, prev ‘prevy’, ragta = ‘racto’ for ‘ragtho’, rest ‘an remnant’, rug anjy ‘gwrussons y’, rugowgh ‘gwrussowgh’, tua ha (or tua dha) ‘wor’tu ha’

Note also me a dhesca for ‘me a dhesk’ and pà ruga Jowan for ‘pàn wrug Jowan’. See Suffixed subject pronouns below for explanation.

The phonetic system employed by Lhuyd enables us to note several points about Boson’s pronunciation that are not explicit in the Standard Cornish respelling. Câss is pronounced with final ‘z’ before a following dh sound. Noun gon is pronounced ‘gûn’. Preposition in is pronounced ‘en’. The j in jùstys is pronounced as a consonantal ‘y’ – this option seems to have been common also for the name Jesus / Jesu ‘Jesus’. We find that obma is pronounced ‘ibma’. Oll may be pronounced ‘yll’, pùb ‘pyb’. Particle re in re bo is pronounced ‘ro’ (reflecting an older form of the word). Possessive pronoun y is pronounced ‘e’. Yonk is pronounced as if the vowel were ‘y’ rather than ‘o’. Final stressed y is generally pronounced ‘ey’, but not in my, ty, vy, and apparently not in chy when it means ajy. We may also note a tendency for th to be pronounced ‘dh’ when it occurs between two vowels in an utterance – compare gordhuwher which evolved from earlier gorthuher in similar fashion.

Suffixed subject pronouns

In me a dhesca and pà ruga Jowan the subject pronoun suffix a (literally, ‘he’ – an abbreviated form of va, see Lesson Fourteen of Book Three) has been added to the verb. In the first instance the suffix recapitulates particle a, which does the work of a relative pronoun and is always technically ‘third person singular’. In the second case the suffix pleonastically refers forward to the expressed subject Jowan.

A suffixed subject pronoun always causes a long vowel preceding it to shorten. So the e in may fen ‘that I might be’ is long, but the e in may fena ‘that I might be’ is short; compare a wreth (long e) but a wreta (short e).

Practys Udnek ha Dêwgans - Exercise Fifty One

The motif of three (as in thrice three pounds, three maxims) is common throughout folklore. Jowan Chy an Hor’ itself is a Cornish variant of a story that is known much more widely. Just how many of these ‘threes’ can you find in the story?

Words for wisdom etc

The concept of skians is at the heart of the tale of Jowan Chy an Hor’. When we first encountered the word in Lesson Thirteen of Book Three, it was glossed as ‘knowledge’. In fact the word is ‘bigger’ in Cornish than mere knowledge alone. Indeed, when Crysten Chegwyn talks in Book Three, Exercise 64 of skians formya kefrës gwaregow ha sethow we already glimpse the emphasis on practicality, just as in Jowan Chy an Hor’, shading into notions that in English might be expressed as ‘intelligence’ or ‘wisdom’ or ‘common sense’. Skians creftus is employed for ‘artificial intelligence (AI)’.

Another word that is difficult to pin down with any single English equivalent is skentoleth. When Eryca Rowe described Danyel Tonkin as pòr skentyl in Book Three, Exercise 67, she meant he was both ‘intelligent’ and ‘knowledgeable’. Skentoleth has more of ‘cleverness’ about it than skians. Note the use of skentyl to mean ‘smart’ of a phone (as in Lesson One, Exercise 2), a motorway, etc.

There is also furneth which we encountered in the extract from the Cornish translation of Jack London’s White Fang. This is wisdom based on the idea of acting sensibly, regarded more as an innate quality than requiring any particular knowledge.

Vocabulary

Here are some more new words.

amyss amiss, wrong, awhêr m distress, bros m stew, colenky v gulp down, cuna v kindle, light (a fire), cyrcùmstans m circumstance, drog-ladrynsy m grand larceny, droppya v drop, dyberhedna v confiscate, faclyans m conflagration, fugya v fake, forge, kemeres tan phr catch fire, kescoweth m chum, lafyl lawful, logas col mice, pith m sunken well, salla v salt, tôwlel predn phr cast lots, whedhla v gossip

The collective ‘mice’ is notionally logos of course (compare an Logosen Dhowr, the Water Rat). The spelling logas reflects the reduction of the final vowel.

The adjective dâ is employed as a masculine noun meaning ‘good’ (abstract concept), also ‘property’.

More triadic folklore

Here is another moral tale of three, from a Germanic tradition collected by the Brothers Grimm. This time the language is more formal.

I’n termyn eus passys y feu logosen, edhen, ha selsygen kescowetha, ow sensy mêny kemmyn, ow pêwa cosel brav, hag owth encressya marthys aga dâ. Ober an edhen o neyja pùb jorna aberth i’n coos ha dry cunys tre. Res o dhe’n logosen don dowr, cuna an tan, ha settya an bord, mès res o dhe’n selsygen kegy.

Seul a vo re wynn aga bÿs, y fedhons y prest hirethek warlergh neb tra nowyth. Unn jëdh an edhen a vetyas gans ken edhen, ha whedhla y cyrcùmstancys bryntyn ha bôstya anedha. An edhen aral, bytegyns, a’n crias gocky fol dre rêson y ober cales, ow leverel fatell esa dhe’n dhew chy negys êsy. Rag pàn wrug an logosen hy than solabrÿs ha don hy dowr, y fedha hy ow mos ajy dh’y rom bian ha powes erna ve hy gelwys dhe settya an bord. Gortos ryb an pot a wre an selsygen, ow qwetyas bos an vytel kegys yn tâ, ha, pàn o prÿs kynyewel ogasty, y fedha hy ow rolya hy honen unweyth hag arta der an bros pò dre’n losow hag indella amanynnys vowns y, sellys, ha parys. Pàn o an edhen devedhys tre ha’y vegh gorrys dhe’n leur, yth esens y owth esedha rag debry, ha wosa y dhe worfenna an boos, y fedhens y ow cafos gwalgh a gùsk bys i’n nessa myttyn, ha splann o aga bêwnans.

Ternos an edhen, kentrynnys gans an edhen aral, ny veu whensys dhe neyja i’n coos, hag ev ow leverel y vos servont nans o termyn hir lowr, ha’y vos mockyes gansa, ha dell o res dhedha keschaunjya worteweth, ha whilas araya an dra in ken maner. Ha kynth esa an logosen ha’n selsygen kefrÿs ow pesy pòr dhywysyk, stowt veu an edhen, ha leverel bos res y brevy. Y whrussons têwlel prenn in y gever, ha’n prenn a godhas wàr an selsygen dhe dhon cunys, y feu an logosen an kegynores, ha res o dhe’n edhen dry dowr.

Pandra wharva? An selsygen vian êth in mes tro ha’n coos, an edhen bian a wrug cuna an tan, an logosen a waitya ryb an pot ha, hy honen oll, gortos bys may teffa Selsygen Sêmly dhe dre, ha dry cunys rag an nessa jorna. Saw an selsygen vian a strechyas mar hir wàr an fordh, mayth esa own dhedha, oll aga dew, bos neppÿth amyss, hag i’n air y whrug an edhen neyja pols in mes rag hy metya. Bytegyns, ev a vetyas wàr an fordh, ha nyns o napell, neb unn ky. Re beu an selsygen druan assaultys gans hemma, avell pray lafyl, ha sêsyes ha colenkys. An edhen a gùhudhas an ky a dhrog-ladrynsy noth, saw euver o geryow, rag an ky a wrug leverel ev dhe gafos an selsygen dell esa ow ton lytherow fugyes, ytho y’n jeva gwir dhe dhyberhenna hy bêwnans anedhy.

Yn trist an edhen a gùntellas an cunys in bàn, neyja tre, ha derivas myns a welas hag a glêwas ev. Troblys êns y yn frâs, mès unverhës dell vynnens gwil oll aga ehen ha remainya warbarth. Ytho an edhen a settyas an bord, ha’n logosen a wrug obery an vytel, ha porposys veu hy dh’aga farusy, ha dhe worra hy honen i’n pot dell o an selsygen ûsys dhe wil, ha dhe rolya ha dhe gramyas i’n losow rag aga hemysky; saw kyns ès hy dhe hedhes bys i’ga cres hy a veu lettyes, ha kellys o hy crohen ha’y bêwnans i’n assay.

Pàn deuth an edhen rag don an kynnyow ajy, nyns esa kegynores dhe weles. In y awhêr an edhen a wre têwlel an cunys omma ha dy, gelwel ha sarchya, mès nyns o kegynores vÿth dhe drouvya! Drefen y fowt preder, an cunys a gemeras tan, may feu faclyans uthyk; an edhen a fystenas rag kerhes dowr, saw an kelorn a dhroppyas in pith an fenten, hag ev ow codha aberveth ganso, ha ny ylly diank, mès res o dhodho budhy i’n tyller-na.

Pàn deuth is commonly found instead of pàn dheuth: d frequently resists Second State mutation when preceded by n.

Accusing the dog of theft is a nice legalistic touch: finding and eating a sausage hardly qualifies as murder.

On the other hand old folk grievances become embedded in stories of this kind. In Germany, the danger once upon a time posed by forged letters; in Cornwall, the loose conduct that was associated with monks.

Practys Dêwdhek ha Dêwgans - Exercise Fifty Two

De tre bukkene Bruse is the Norwegian tale about three goats that is known in English as The Three Billy Goats Gruff. A well known English tale, originally written by Robert Southey (died 1843) but subsequently adapted, is Goldilocks and the Three Bears. The outline of both stories can easily be found on-line. See how well you can retell one or both of them in Cornish.

There is a Cornish version of the first tale, as An Try Bogh Bewek, by Eddie Foirbeis Climo, in his translation of The Primer: adapted and graded by Harriette Taylor Treadwell and Margaret Free (1910); it was published as Kensa Lyver Redya by Evertype (2009) . You might take a look at it after you have attempted a retelling of your own. The bridge is kept by a troll; the billy goats are trying to cross the bridge to reach the porva ‘pasture’ on the mountain.

Goldilocks is called Elen Benfelen or just Penfelen in Welsh. As Elen Benvelen or Penvelen this will be a perfectly good Cornish name too. Ors is a bear. You may use orses for a she-bear.

Checklist of inflected comparatives

When inflected comparatives were first introduced in Lesson Four of Book Two, we remarked that you might learn them for the time being as you go along. It will now be helpful to draw the various inflected comparative together in one place, so here is a practical checklist. You can check the meaning of new adjectives in the Vocabulary at the end of the Book. All of these comparatives may be used in written Cornish; many are also heard frequently in conversation. But you should read the Important note below.

For each item the first word is the positive form, the second word (in bold) is the comparative.

abyl appla, bas bassa, bian byhadnha (or byhanha), brâs brâssa, brav braffa, cales calassa (or calacha), clâv claffa, cler clerha, cles clessa, clor clorha, clos clôssa, cot cotta, coth cotha, crobm crobma, cul culha, cuv cuffa, dâ gwell, dov doffa, down downha, drog lacka (high register gweth), du duha, êsy êsya, fresk fresca, freth fretha, fur furha, garow garwa, glân glanha, glëb gleppa, glew glewa, gwadn gwadnha (or gwanha), gwag gwacka, gwyls gwylsa, gwyw gwywa (or gweffa), hager hackra, hir hirha, isel iselha, ker kerha, larj larjya, lent lenta, leun leunha, leven lefna, leyth leytha, lows lowsa, lybm lebma, medhel medalha, nes nessa, pell pelha, plain plainya, poos possa, pur purha, rych rycha, salow salwa, saw sawa, scav scaffa, scon sconha, sëgh seha, sempel sempla, serth sertha, spladn spladnha (or splanha), sqwith sqwitha, sur surha, teg tecka, tew tewa, tewl tewla, tobm tobma, tydn tydnha (or tynha), uhel uhelha, uskys uskyssa, whar wharha, wheg whecka, wherow wherwa, yagh yaha, yêyn yêynha, yonk yonca

Gwell and gweth are not strictly speaking inflected comparatives, but they have comparative sense, so they are included here for convenience. Every inflected comparative can also be used with an for superlative meaning. Exclusively superlative gwelha ‘best’ corresponds to gwell, exclusively superlative gwetha ‘worst’ corresponds to gweth – these may be used with or without an. Away from high registers and fixed expressions we replace [an] gwetha with an lacka. In Lesson Fifteen of Book Three we also met superlative drocka which is confined to exclamations.

It is sometimes said that nes is itself a comparative, so that nessa can only have superlative meaning. But this has been surmised on the basis of Welsh; it is not really supported by the historical evidence for Cornish itself. Note too that when nessa is employed in the sense ‘next’ rather than ‘nearest’, an is often dropped. This parallels the use of dewetha ‘last’; this word originated as a superlative meaning ‘latest’ but was never employed with comparative sense. Ogas has no comparative form; if we do not employ nessa, then we say moy ogas and moyha ogas.

Instead of the spellings lh, rh we may write ll, rr. And instead of dnh or nh we may write dn or nn. These options are usually taken by Cornish speakers who choose not to make the relevant sounds ‘voiceless’ in their own pronunciation. Conversely, some speakers may pronounce an h in other comparative forms; the form wherw’ha was recorded by Edward Lhuyd, and alternative forms such as saw’ha and tew’ha are likewise possible.

See An Mordarow ha’n Carpenter (Lesson Three) for porra as a superlative form of pòr ‘very’.

Important note

Originally, it was only adjectives inherited from the Brythonic ancestor language that had an inflected comparative form, and the table above includes loan-words to which an inflected comparative has been applied by analogy. Agreement is lacking on exactly which adjectives qualify for this treatment. Some speakers might regard the list given here as too liberal; others may be prepared to coin inflected comparatives to adjectives not included in the list – Caradar’s vilha, for instance, in the extract quoted from Tristan hag Isolt in Lesson Six.

There is no objection to forming a comparative for most of the listed adjectives with moy instead: that is, for all of them except brâs, coth, dâ, drog, nes, pell, yonk.

You may not make an inflected comparative for any adjective formed by suffixation, or for any verbal adjective.

Practys Tredhek ha Dêwgans - Exercise Fifty Three

How would you say the following in Cornish?

It will turn much colder again before summer finally arrives. The pain in my leg is more intense when I’m lying down. The fuller the load, the more efficiently the machine will wash the clothes. It would have been more sensible to do nothing until the situation was somewhat clearer. Well, I must say that’s a lot more civilized!

Superlative idea expressed with comparative

Cornish often likes to package an idea into a negative construction. We already know how ‘only’ is expressed by marnas or its contracted form ma’s with a negative verb. And that scant is most commonly employed with a negative verb. It is also the case that a sentence like ‘He is the most handsome person I ever saw’, where English employs a superlative, will naturally become in good Cornish Bythqweth ny welys vy tecka den, literally ‘I never saw a more handsome man’ – that is, using a comparative expression instead.

Vocabulary

Here are some more new words.

antymony m antimony, Atlantek Atlantic, clethren f rail, colm m knot, covep f monument, das’henwel v rename, desînya v design, diogeleth m safety, Dowr Fala the River Fal, Dowr Mahonyer the Helford River, euthres m stampede, fowt m defect, gorotham m emergency, hayl m estuary, Lanahevran St Keverne, londya v put ashore, Meyn Eglos the Manacles, nes’he v approach, parwys m bulkhead (also dividing wall), Porth Coverek Coverack, Porth Ewstek Porthoustock, stanch watertight (also waterproof), tredan m electricity, trumach m sea crossing

Gwethyas an âls is the coastguard. Lewyador is a pilot, either of a ship or an aircraft. Scath sawya is a lifeboat.

In physics toth ‘speed’ is distinct from uskytter ‘velocity’. In everyday Cornish the two words are interchangeable.

Cornwall’s dangerous coast

In Lesson Six we noted how the Torrey Canyon was wrecked on the Seven Stones Reef. Another famous shipwreck was the loss of the steamer Mohegan on the Manacles in 1898. Here is an account of that event. Another case of an unlucky renamed ship.

Y feu an gorhal byldyes in Hull ha henwys Cleopatra orth an dallath. Desînys rag diogeleth, y’s teva eth parwys stanch hag eth scath sawya. Mès byldyes snell o hy, hag i’n kensa trumach y teuth an mor ha sygera in corf an lester aberveth.

Wosa gweyth êwna in Loundres, an gorhal a veu das’henwys Mohegan, hag a wrug mora, an tredhegves mis Hedra 1898, comondyes gans capten Richard Griffith, den a dhew bloodh ha dêwgans. Inhy yth esa 57 tremenyas, 97 marner, 7 den gwarthek, ha moy ès mil dona gwyras, coref, hag antymony.

An lewyador a veu londyes 19:30, orth Dover. Yth esa fowtow obma hag ena, saw bohes o aga nùmber, heb bos a vern. An Mohegan a wrug encressya toth bys i’n ughboynt, ow tremena an Chanel ahës. An 14ves, pàn o devedhys dhe Gernow, dre neb errour yth esa an lester re ogas dhe’n âls. Hy a wrug nes’he dhe hayl an Fala, ha trailya tro ha Dowr Mahonyer, ha dhe’n morrep usy ow resek bys in Lesard, mès ny veu lehës uskytter an gorhal, o whath tredhek colm.

Gwethyas an âls in Porth Coverek a whilas sîna an peryl dre fusednow gwarnya, ha brenyas scath sawya Porth Ewstek, pàn welas an gorhal ha’y lugern spladn ow medra toth men wor’tu ha Meyn Eglos, an den a gùntellas oll an felshyp wàr hast rag rescous.

Re holergh, 18:50, y feu marners an Mohegan ow convedhes aga feryl. Anjy a stoppyas an jynys, bytegyns an gorhal a wrug gweskel an veyn, ha’n lew neythys stag, ha corf an lester egerys dhe’n mor. Yth esa an dremenysy ow cona pàn wharva oll an droglam. Pàn wrug an tredan fyllel dre rêson liv in rom an jynys, pùb huny a dheuth wàr an flûr, may hallens y launchya an scathow. Mothow! Eskyna i’n scathow o lestys gans clethren a wrug an capten derevel kyns, rag gwitha warbydn euthres in gorotham. Ha’n gorhal a bosas kensa aglêdh, nessa adhyhow, yn frâs. An scathow ny vowns morys ma’s dyw anodhans, an eyl leun a dhowr, omwhelys y gela. Sedhy a wrug an gorhal dêwdhek mynysen wosa gweskel an veyn, 106 enef o kellys, hag y feu Capten Griffith budhys gans an lester warbarth. Scath sawya Porth Ewstek, an Charlotte, a dheuth kyn pedn hanter-our, ha selwel 44 enef in mes a’n mor.

An moyha radn a’n bobel varow a gafas encledhyas in Lanahevran, i’n gorflan, ha covep yw an fenester Atlantek a weder lyw ena i’n eglos. An tressa sodhak, William Logan Hindmarsh, yw encledhys in corflan Porth Coverek.

This passage follows the marine convention of referring to a ship as hy ‘she’, notwithstanding that both gorhal and lester are masculine nouns.

Practys Peswardhek ha Dêwgans - Exercise Fifty Four

The loss of the Mohegan was a major disaster for Atlantic passenger traffic at the time. Thirteen years later an even greater catastrophe would capture the imagination of the world. Write, in Cornish, an account of the sinking of the Titanic.

You will need meneth rew ‘iceberg’, of course.

Practys Pymthek ha Dêwgans - Exercise Fifty Five

Write an email in suitable Cornish to the Cornish language society of which you’re a member, asking to switch your membership category to ‘unwaged’ now you have retired, and enquiring what the new lower annual subscription will be, so you can change your standing order.

Arhadow parhus is a standing order. We use class for ‘category’.

**********

LESSON DÊWDHEK

LESSON TWELVE

Vocabulary

Here are a couple more new items of vocabulary.

gordhyans m worship, pàr lavarow in words

Cornish poetry – the historical record

Passyon agan Arlùth, known in English as ‘The Passion of Our Lord’ or just ‘the Passion Poem’, is a long dramatic poem dating from the second half of the fourteenth century. It deals with the arrest, interrogation, trial and execution of Jesus Christ, based on a combination of the biblical accounts and developed Christian tradition. This is the earliest surviving work of Cornish literature. The poem was titled ‘Mount Calvary’ by Davies Gilbert in his edition of 1826, and occasionally this name is still employed.

Here is the opening stanza.

ABABACAC

Tas ha Mab ha’n Sperys Sans,

– wy a bÿs a leun-golon –

re wrauntyo dhewgh grâss ha whans

dhe wolsowes y Bassyon,

ha dhymmo grâss ha skians

dhe dherevas pàr lavarow,

may fo dhe Dhuw dhe wordhyans

ha sylwans dhe’n enevow.

We have added the rhyme scheme of the stanza, as we did earlier for the extract from Tristan hag Isolt. In fact, as you will see in further extracts, the most frequent scheme in a stanza is the same AB alternation for all four couplets. But alliterating consonants and assonating syllables are more important than the rhymes; this is a defining feature of Passyon agan Arlùth. One must therefore pay careful attention to the spelling of each word as recorded in the surviving manuscripts. It is sometimes necessary to derogate from Standard Cornish spellings, to ensure the sound effects are not obscured or lost. If you wish to appreciate the poem truly as a work of art, you should on no account rely on any edition that respells everything as if it were modern prose.

In the first stanza we find unaspirated wy (Standard Cornish why). We also meet dhewgh, dherevas, sylwans (Standard Cornish dhywgh, dherivas, selwans). Such variants are typical for the poem overall. The poet is able to make significant play on alternation between e and i/y sounds characteristic of the language of his own time. This is an aspect of the historical Cornish shift towards e sounds from the older i/y sounds that we still encounter in corresponding Welsh words today.

It is worth noting that when reading the Passion Poem, which was written before the English ‘Great Vowel Shift’ that also affected Cornish pronunciation for many speakers, the long a vowel should be given its unchanged sound. That is, grâss rhymes with modern southern English grass, not with modern English grace.

Practys Whêtek ha Dêwgans - Exercise Fifty Six

Examine each individual verse in the first stanza of the Passion Poem and also the stanza as a whole. Identify the alliterations and assonances; and consider any contrast or ‘defeated expectation’ where alliteration or assonance is lacking. Look too at the position of words within a verse. The rhyming final word of a verse is usually significant. But look too at the fourth syllable (the ‘pivot’) in each verse – does anything stand out in this position?

Archaic grammar

Most of the grammar that we find in the Passion Poem may be used in modern Cornish, though the result will sometimes be a specifically high register, unsuited to everyday use. There are however a few points of grammar which are nowadays considered archaic.

We mentioned the pluperfect tense in Book Three; the Passion Poem is the only historical work where it is found with its original meaning of anterior past as opposed to a purely conditional sense.

There is a unique occurrence of an old form of the preterite tense in the third stanza, where we find pàn gemmert kig an Werhes ‘when He assumed the Virgin’s flesh’, with gemmert instead of gemeras.

We also find a few impersonal forms of the verb that mostly fell out of use afterwards: for example, Y helwys, ‘there was a calling’ (imperfect tense) at the beginning of Stanza 30. These forms were rare because the impersonal ending for the imperfect and preterite tenses came to be identical to the ending for the corresponding third person singular, so that the specifically impersonal meaning was obscured.

We can mention here too an old third person singular imperative ending in es. This does not occur in the Passion Poem, but we find it in the dramatic cycle known as the Ordinalia. This takes the place of the imperative ending in ens (as in bedhens) when only one person is being exhorted, so in the second part of the Ordinalia called Passio Christi, for instance, we read gweskes lemmyn neb coweth ‘let some comrade now strike’.

Vocabulary

Here are a few more new words.

crows f cross, kenter f nail, lathya v fix with a lath / strut, tackya v attach

Latha is a lath or strut, distinguished form lath ‘yard’ (measure of length); but the two words have the same origin.

We have already met tackya in the figurative expression tackya dêwla.

Practys Seytek ha Dêwgans - Exercise Fifty Seven

Christ’s execution was by crucifixion, which involved confining the culprit, arms outstretched, to a scaffold in the form of a large wooden cross, driving nails through hands and feet. For a reader today the details are merely gruesome, and may seem to have scant literary appeal. In the fourteenth century Christians in Cornwall (that is, officially, almost everybody) were encouraged to contemplate the minutiae of the crucifixion process as an important part of their devotion, and the image of Christ hanging on the cross (the ‘Cruxifix’) as a sign of redemption was ubiquitous in the iconography of the Church. The author of the Passion Poem brings considerable art to his description accordingly.

Here is the ‘carpentry’ of the execution, as told in Stanza 179. It is certainly relevant to the poet’s intention that, according to the biblical accounts, Jesus was originally a carpenter by profession.

ABABABAB

Gansa Crist a veu têwlys

wàr an grows dhe wrowedha.

Ha’y eyl leuv a veu tackys

ord an grows fast mayth esa.

Ha’y eyl troos a veu gorrys

poran wàr benn y gela;

worth an grows y fôns lathys

gans kenter gwyskys dredha.

Comment on the poetics of this stanza, assessing the choice and position of the words, considering the arrangement of sounds, and judging the effect for the stanza as a whole.

Ord for orth is an archaic alternative. Fôns is an alternative to fowns which is still available in Cornish today – any third person plural form of a verb ending in owns may be replaced with one ending in ôns if you prefer. Gwyskys is gweskys (from gweskel) in Standard Cornish.

Vocabulary

Here are a few more new words.

mêstrynjys m mastery, traitour m traitor, Yêdhow m Jew

In Book Three we encountered rowtor in the specific sense of a football manager. The word more generally means anyone in charge of something.

Practys Êtek ha Dêwgans - Exercise Fifty Eight

Jesus had been condemned to death according to Roman justice. Jewish elders were his accusers; the ‘trial’ took the form of interrogation by Pontius Pilate, the governor of Judaea. Here is the opening of the trial as imagined by the Passion Poem, Stanzas 98 to 102.

How does the poet achieve his dramatic effect? At the end of the extract you will find some notes clarifying particular words.

ABABABAB

Y êth ha Jesus gansa

bys in Pylat o Jùstys,

anodho breus may rolla,

dre y vreus may fe ledhys.

Lavarsons y heb pyta

“Agan traitour yw kefys.

Res yw dheso y dhamnya

dhe’n mernans adhesympys.”

ABABABAB

Yn medh Pylat “Pana dra

a inyowgh wy warnodho?”

“Na ve bos fâls an den-ma,

ny’n drossen ny bys deso.”

Y leverys “Dre laha

ha why dampnowgh e ytho.”

Yn medhans “Yêdhow ny wra

dampnya den, lader kyn fo.”

ABABABAB

Henna Pylat pàn welas,

kymmys côwsys er y bynn,

rowtors ha tus rych i’n wlas,

rêsons mar fol ha mar dynn,

Pylat orto govynnas

i’n keth vaner-ma govyn

“Osa Mab Duw, leun a ras?

Lemmyn gwir te lavar dhyn.”

ABABABAB

Yn medh Crist, an cuv colon,

“Pòr wir te re leverys.

Te, a wodhyes dha honen?

Pe dre gen re veus gwarnys?”

Pylat a gêwsys yn scon

“Te a veu dhymm danvenys.

Lavar dhymmo dha honen,

pÿth yw an drog re wrussys?”

ABABABAB

Yn medh Jesus “Nynj ujy

ow mêstrynjys i’n bÿs-ma.

Hag a pe, ow thus dhe wy

ny’m delyrfsens indelma.”

“Ytho mygtern ota se?”

yn medh Pylat i’n eur-na.

“Gwir re gwesys iredy,”

yn medh Crist. “Mygtern oma.”

Notes

The alternation of e and i/y here results in a number of forms that step outside Standard Cornish spelling: adhesympys for adhesempys, deso / dheso for dyso / dhyso, kymmys for kemmys, pe in Stanza 101 for py ‘or’, se for sy – here breaking perfect rhyme.

Other differences from Standard Cornish are dhamnya for dhampnya (while dampnowgh shows that for the poet the p-sound was optional), gwesys for gêwsys (metathesis); and mygtern for mytern – this g (more usually encountered in this word as gh) being apparently still pronounced.

Osa and ota for osta show the tendency to simplify medial st that we have already seen in ô’tya and jù’tycyow of Jowan Chy an Hor’. Compare also woteweth alongside wosteweth. Osa (also oja) and ota are nowadays considered colloquial. But their presence in a work of literature from the fourteenth century well illustrates how it is quite wrong to suppose such forms did not exist until the later stages of historical Cornish.

Inyowgh must have two syllables in order to fit the metrical scheme. Standard Cornish would write iniowgh (three syllables), but some words that we usually render with syllabic i can alternatively have non-syllabic y. Another example of this phenomenon is teythyek as an alternative to teythiak. And we have previously noted how suffix ieth is pronounced by some speakers as if it were yeth.

In delyrfsens we have an instance of the pluperfect tense still being used to express anterior time in the past. But in drossen we have conditional sense.

Nynj ujy and mêstrynjys are evidence for a West Cornwall influence on the composition, or at least the textual transmission, of Stanza 102.

Vocabulary

Here are some more new words.

anfeus (also anfeuth) m misfortune, confort m comfort, dagren f (tear)drop, ely m remedy, keudh m sorrow, trewesy heavy (of a blow)

There is doubt about the meaning of trewesy. Some Cornish speakers spell it truesy, believing it means ‘sad’ (from tru ‘alas’). If the word does indeed mean ‘heavy’ (of blows), we must accept that its use is sometimes figurative.

Practys Nawnjek ha Dêwgans - Exercise Fifty Nine

An essential part of Christian worship in mediaeval Cornwall was veneration of an Werhes Ker Maria, the Blessed Virgin Mary, the mother of Jesus. It would not have gone unnoticed, especially in a largely illiterate population, that gweres ‘help’ and gwerhes ‘virgin’ are nearly identical in sound.

In the Passion Poem Mary’s grief at the execution of Jesus is described as an arrow that goes through her heart (dre ’y holon yth êth seth), so that blood wells up within her (wàr hy holon may crunys dre nerth an bomm fenten goos). This leads into Stanza 225 where Mary literally weeps blood. This is immediately followed in Stanza 226 by a description of Mary’s joy in Heaven.

How does the poet point the difference between these two moods? At the end of the extract you will find some notes clarifying particular words.

ABABABAB

A'n goos-na dagrennow try

dre’y dewlagas yth êth.

Nynj o confort na yly

a wrello ’y holon heudh,

ha’y vainys mar drewesy

a’s kemmer ha kymmys keudh;

in oll an bÿs ny ylly

den cafos kymmys anfeuth.

ABABABAB

’Y fainys o brâs ha crev

in joy dhedhy trailys yw,

rag mygternes yw in nev;

dhe vos gordhys hy yw gyw.

Eleth dheragthy a sev,

lies mil ’y bodh a syw,

ha’y mab a’s gordh dell vynn ev.

Tecka ès howl yw ’y lyw.

Notes

We saw in Jowan Chy an Hor’ (’y follat, ’y thermas) how the possessive pronoun hy is often pronounced without aspiration when the following word makes the meaning clear, either because it is mutated to Third State or because it is not mutated to Second State. The apostrophe is merely a spelling convention – historically y and hy were parallel forms of this possessive pronoun: etymologically it is not a case of h being lost.

Dagrennow try ‘three teardrops’ is a poetical usage; note how it dispenses with the usual rule that numerals are employed with a singular noun. But we can remark that Nicholas Williams retained singular nouns in his a pe mowes seyth gans scubyl seyth in An Mordarow ha’n Carpenter (Lesson Three).

In the phrase dell vynn ev the sense is still ‘wish’. The Passion Poem predates the development of the inflected present tense of mydnas into an auxiliary forming future tenses for other verbs.

Vainys and fainys show alternation between f and v that is a feature of our early Cornish texts.

Other differences from Standard Cornish not previously noted are dheragthy for dhyragthy, gyw for gwyw, mygternes for myternes, syw for sew, yly for ely.

Practys Try Ugans - Exercise Sixty

Write an email in suitable Cornish to the presenter of a recent on-line talk in Cornish, saying you found it very informative, and enquiring if a recording of the talk is available so you can listen back to it.

Recordyans is a recording.

**********

Stagell – Appendix

ORDYR GERYOW

WORD ORDER

Principles of word order govern the arranging of words within phrases, the arranging of phrases within clauses, and the arranging of clauses within sentences. This is a part of grammar, and is technically called syntax.

Learning how to order the words of a Cornish sentence correctly is not just a matter ‘common sense’. And it is particularly important to realize that English principles of word order that we may perhaps suppose to be universal are not in fact a reliable guide to good Cornish syntax, which is a system that must be mastered and applied on its own terms.

Here are the principles that you should apply to prose. If any derogation is considered artistically appropriate in poetical diction, then care must be taken to ensure that the meaning is still clear.

Arranging words within phrases

When the definite article is employed, it comes before the noun and any attributive adjectives. But oll has its own rules (Book Three Lesson 14).

Inflected comparative and superlative adjectives generally precede their noun. Ordinal numerals from kensa to nawnjegves generally precede their noun. There is a closed class of attributive adjectives that always precede their noun; and a closed sub-class of these are then treated as a prefix (hyphenated). Other attributive adjectives generally follow their noun, but some of them may alternatively precede their noun, sometimes with a different nuance of meaning, and in many but not all of these cases they are then treated as a prefix (hyphenated). Adverbs and prepositional phrases functioning as attributive adjectives always follow their noun.

Reinforcing personal pronouns directly follow their inflected verb or inflected preposition; a personal pronoun reinforcing the subject may also precede an imperative.

An inflected verb or a verb-noun may only be separated from its direct object by an inflected preposition, an adverb, or a short prepositional phrase. The pronoun object of an inflected imperative directly follows it.

In an adverbial phrase formed with particle yn, the particle comes first, then any modifying adverb (fest, moy, pòr, etc).

In a prepositional phrase the preposition comes first; for splitting compound prepositions, see Book Two Lesson 13.

A verbal particle directly precedes an inflected verb; the only exception is when an infixed pronoun intervenes.

A coordinating conjunction is placed between the elements to which it relates in a phrase; in the case of more than two elements but a single coordinating conjunction, this is placed between the penultimate and the last element. Particle ow (owth) must be repeated. The repetition of a preposition is optional.

Arranging phrases within a clause

Disregarding for this purpose any fronted adverbial, a verb (with accompanying particle, subject reinforcement, pronoun object whether direct or indirect) comes first in a main clause unless the subject, the object or the complement is fronted. For this purpose the part of a verb phrase formed by combining ow or owth (or orth + possessive pronoun) with a verb-noun is treated as an adverbial; if this is fronted, any object of the verb-noun is transposed with it.

If a plural noun subject is fronted without employing the verbal particle a (if the verbal particle is, for example, y(th) for greater emphasis or namna(g) for modified meaning), then the verb must be changed from third person singular to third person plural, whether or not a resumptive subject pronoun y is employed.

10.

A coordinating conjunction is placed between the two clauses to which it relates in a sentence. A subordinating conjunction or particle must be repeated.

11.

A subordinating conjunction or a conjunction introducing a protasis (in a conditional sentence) generally comes first in its clause, though a fronted adverb may precede it, and the subject of the clause is sometimes placed in front of both; however, a subject may not precede a ‘if’ and na ‘if not’.

12.

A subordinating conjunction or a conjunction introducing a protasis (in a conditional sentence) directly precedes an inflected verb; the only exception is when an infixed pronoun intervenes, with any ‘prop’ particle that is required.

13.

An indirect object usually follows any direct object not expressed by an infixed pronoun, but this order is often reversed if the indirect object is expressed by an inflected preposition.

14.

In unforced word order, an adverbial of place usually precedes an adverbial of manner, purpose or cause; and an adverbial of manner, purpose or cause usually precedes an adverbial of time; but the reverse sequence applies for any such adverbials that are fronted.

15.

A verb-noun and any ordinary noun that is its direct object historically comprised a genitive construction. But sight of this has been lost to the extent that an indirect object or short adverbial may now intervene.

16.

Fronted prepositional phrases generally precede a fronted subject or object.

17.

Forcing (applying a different word order) may be justified by considerations of emphasis as well as sentence cadence or rhythm.

18.

A vocative expression may be added to a main clause initially, medially, or finally.

Arranging clauses within a sentence

19.

Adjectival clauses follow their antecedent; but an adjectival clause beginning with particle a (functioning as a relative pronoun with implicit antecedent seul) may be fronted as a subject.

20.

A nominal clause expressed with a verb-noun may be fronted when it functions as the subject or object of a sentence; and it is then frequently expressed as a topic, in which case a demonstrative pronoun usually takes its place as the argument of the main verb. Subordinate clauses of indirect statement or indirect question, however, generally follow the main clause.

21.

Subordinate clauses of time, cause, purpose, result, concession (‘although’) may precede or follow a main clause. A parenthetical clause, typically formed with dell, may be embedded between phrases within another clause according to sense.

22.

The protasis of a conditional sentence may precede or follow the apodosis; but a protasis introduced by a ‘if’ usually precedes.

Specific phrase rule for ken

Ken precedes its noun when it is an attributive adjective meaning ‘another’. It usually follows a compound pronoun.

Specific phrase rules for onen, an re, huny

Most attributive adjectives follow onen; the exceptions are ken, kenyver, kettep, neb, pùb. An attributive adjective follows an re. In the limited number of expressions permitted with huny, it always follows the attributive adjective.

**********

GERVA

VOCABULARY

The listing is comprehensive for what has been covered specifically in Books One, Two, Three, Four; along with the specific list of Colloquial Forms in Book Three. If you wish to go further, there is always Gerlyver Kescows – a Cornish dictionary for conversation; and most of the translations available on the lovinglivingcornish website (www.skeulantavas.com) have their own glossaries.

Click or tap here for the dictionary

Abbreviations: adj adjective, adv adverb, col collective noun, conj conjunction, f feminine noun, interj interjection, m masculine noun, part particle, phr phrase, pl plural noun, prep preposition, pron pronoun, quant quantifier, v verb-noun.

Superscript numerals indicate required mutation of following word: ² Second State, etc. ⁽²⁾ means that Second State mutation depends on the overall grammar.

In entries for ordinary nouns, the plural form is also given; except that for collective nouns it is the singulative that is often added. All these singulatives are feminine, with a plural in ednow.

Names of cities, towns and villages can be treated as feminine because cyta or tre or pendra can be understood. Most can equally be regarded as genderless (but Loundres is always feminine). A few transparent names may be treated as masculine or feminine according to their composition – Penzans can thus be considered masculine because pedn is masculine or feminine because it is a tre.

Cardinal and ordinal numerals are listed up to twenty, together with the cardinals for fifty, a hundred, a thousand and a million.

A name of letter A

Â! interj Ah!

a⁴ conj if

a² part interrogative particle used to mark closed question

a² part link particle used to connect preceding subject or direct object to verb, also functions as relative pronoun

a² part vocative particle, optional when addressing someone

a² prep from; of

Â! interj Ah!

a’n par-ma phr such, like this

a’n par-na phr such, like that

a’n tu’vês phr from outside, external

a ble⁵ phr where from

a bris phr important

a byle⁵ See a ble⁵

A gev a gafam phr I’ll have the same

a leungolon phr wholehearted

a varhas dhâ phr good value, cheap

a verr speyss See a verr spÿs

a verr spÿs phr soon

a’y eseth phr sitting, sat

a’y sav phr standing, stood

a’y wroweth phr lying (down)

a’y vodh phr willingly, gladly

abàn² conj since

abarth prep on behalf of, in favour of (with nouns)

abarth dhe² prep on behalf of, in favour of (with pronouns)

abecedary m alphabet

aberth in prep inside

aberveth adv in, inside

aberveth in prep in, inside

ablatyf m ablative

ableth m ability

abma v [dhe²] kiss

abrans m abransow eyebrow

abrës adv early

absolût adj absolute

abûsyans m abuse

abyl adj able

academyk adj academic

acceptya v accept

achêson See chêson

acord m agreement

acordya v agree

acordyng dhe² prep according to

acownt m acowntys account

acownt arhow m acowntys deposit account

acownt erbysy m acowntys savings account

acownt kesres m acowntys current account

acownt profyt ha coll m profit and loss account

acownt rentys ha mona spênys m acowntys income and expenditure account

acowntyades f acowntyadesow female accountant

acowntyas m acowntysy accountant

act m actys act

adâl prep opposite (with nouns)

adâl dhe² prep opposite (with pronouns)

adamant m adamantys diamond

adar prep apart from

addya v add

addys adj added; additional, extra

adenewen adv aside; sideways

ader dro See adre dro

adermyn adv on time

adhedro adv around

adhelergh adv behind

adhelergh dhe² prep behind

adhesempys See desempys

adhevîs adv first class, ideal

adhewedhes adv late

adhyhow adv on the right

adhyhow dhe² prep on the right of

adhyrag See dhyrag

adhyscans m education

adhystowgh See dystowgh

adran f adradnow department

adre dro phr around

adreus adv across

adreus dhe² prep across

adrëv prep behind (with nouns)

adrëv dhe² prep behind (with pronouns)

adro adv around

adro prep See adro dhe²

adro dhe² prep around; about

adroos adv on foot

afîna v decorate; refine

aflythys adj impacable

afreal adj unreal

aga³ possessive pron their; them (direct object of verb-noun)

agan possessive pron our; us (direct object of verb-noun)

agas possessive pron your (plural or stranger); you (plural or stranger, direct object of verb-noun)

agensow adv recently

ages See ès

aglêdh adv on the left

aglêdh dhe² prep on the left of

agria v agree, concur

agrians m agreement

aha m awe

ahës adv lengthwise

air m air

airbosor m airbosoryon barometer

airens f airednow aircraft

airêwnans m air conditioning

airgelgh m airgelhow atmosphere

ajy adv in, inside

ajy dhe² prep in, inside

aken dhewboynt f akednow dewboynt diaeresis

aken dhieskynus f akednow dieskynus grave accent

aken grobm f akednow crobm circumflex accent

alebma adv from here; ago

alebma rag phr from now on

alegory m alegorys allegory

alena adv from there

alergeth m alergedhow allergy

alês adv widely

alînya v align

Alman adj German

Alman m Almanas German

Almaynek adj German

Almaynek m German (language)

alowa v allow

alowadow adj legitimate

âls f âlsyow cliff

Alter Non Altarnun

alwhedha v lock

alwhedhor m alwhedhoryon treasurer

alwheth m alwhedhow key

alwheth know m alwhedhow spanner

amal m & f emlow edge, rim

amanydna v butter

amanyn m butter

amary m amarys cupboard

ambos m ambosow condition; bargain

amendya v put right, mend

amendys See gwil leun amendys

amêthyans m agriculture

amortîsans m amortization

amowntyor dêwlin m amowntyoryon laptop (computer)

amowntyor legh m amowntyoryon tablet (computer)

amyss adv amiss, wrong

amyttya v admit

an⁽²⁾ definite article the

an Bardh Meur m the Grand Bard

an cans phr per cent

an Chanel the [English] Channel

an Cresvor the Mediterranean

an Dasserghyans m the (Cornish) Revival

an dêwdhek m the jury (in Crown Court)

an dro-ma phr this time

an eyl hy ben phr one another, each other (feminine reference)

an eyl y gela phr one another, each other

an eyl [+ noun] … y gela phr the one … the other

an Howldrevel the Orient

an Howlsedhas the Occident

an Iseldiryow the Netherlands

an jëdh See dëdh

an jëdh hedhyw phr the present day

an jowl See dyowl

an Kersegy the Fens

an keth adj the same

an keth hedna phr the same [one / thing]

an kethsam adj the very same

an nor See dor

an Norvÿs m the Earth

an pëth pron what (followed by adjectival clause)

an present termyn phr the present

an ragwel wàr an awel phr the weather forecast

An Stâtarhow pl The Treasury

an Tir Uhel North Cornwall

anal m & f breath

anathves adj immature

anawel f storm

ancar m ancorow anchor

ancombra v embarrass; confuse

ancombrus adj embarrassing; confusing

ancres m unrest, disquiet

ancresadow adj unbelievable

androw m late afternoon

anella v breathe

anedhy v reside

anedhyans m residence

anedhva f residence

aneth m anedhow residence

aneth m anethow ‘something worth a story’, wonder, adventure

anfeus m misfortune

anfeuth See anfeus

angra v anger

angùs m anguish

ania v get on someone’s nerves

anjy personal pron they, them

anken m adversity, stress

ankevy v forget

anowy v kindle, light

anperfeth adj imperfect

anperfëth See anperfeth

antarlyk m antarlyckys pantomime

antymony m antimony

anwesy v catch cold

anwhecter m unpleasantness

anwhek adj unpleasant

anwos m chill; cold (illness)

any m aniow complaint (health)

anyagh adj unhealthy

anyêhes m poor health

anyen f instinct

ap m appyow app

aparn m aprodnyow apron

apert adj obvious, evident

Appalachyan adj Appalachian

apperya v appear

apposyans m apposyansow examination

arâg adv ahead, in front; for’ard

arâg prep ahead of, in front of

arâg dorn phr beforehand, previously

aral adj (pl erel) other

araya v arrange; lay out

arayans m arayansow arrangement; layout

arbednyk adj particular, special

arbenygya v specialize

Arctek adj Arctic

arenep m arenebow surface

areth f arethyow speech; lecture

arethor m arethoryon speaker (someone who gives a talk or lecture)

arethorieth f oratory

arethva f arethvaow podium, dais

arethya v speak publicly, lecture

arethyk m & f rhetoric

arfedhor m arfedhoryon employer

arfeth v employ

argemydna v advertise

argemydnans m advertising, publicity

argh atal f arhow dustbin

argraf m argrafow impression

argya v argue (a case)

arhadow m order(s)

arhadow parhus m standing order

arhansek adj financial

arhanty m arhantiow bank (financial)

arhasa v fund

arhow pl treasury

arlenwel v top up

arlodhes f arlodhesow lady

arlùth m arlydhy lord

arlyw m arlywyow shade, tint

army m armys army

arnowyth adj modern

arolegydhes f arolegydhesow female inspector

arolegyth m arolegydhyon inspector

arta adv back, again

artykyl m artyclys article

arv f arvow weapon

arva f carnage, slaughter

arva v arm

arvor m coast

arvrusy v assess

Arwednak Falmouth

arweth f arwedhyow signal

ascendya v ascend, go up

asclas col asclejen chips, fries

ascor m produce

ascorn m eskern bone

ascoryans m production

asectour m asectours executor

asen m & f asenas ass, donkey

askel f eskelly wing

askellek adj winged

asper adj harsh

asperyta m harshness

aspia v catch sight of

aspias See aspia

ass See assa²

Ass yw dieth! phr What a pity! What a shame!

assa² part exclamatory particle

assaultya v attack

assay m assayes attempt; test, rehearsal

assaya v try (exercise, effort); rehearse

assayva f assayvaow gym

assentya v agree (to something), say yes

assenyans m assonance

astel ober m/v strike (industrial dispute)

astell f estyll board

astell cres f estyll centreboard

astell mordardhya f estyll surfboard

astell wydn f estyll gwydn whiteboard

astevery v compensate (for), reimburse

asteveryans m compensation

asthmatek adj asthmatic

astranj See stranj

astronomek adj astronomical

aswon v know, recognize

aswonvos m consciousness

aswy f aswiow gap

atla m atlion outlaw; hoodlum

Atlantek adj Atlantic

atorny m atornys solicitor

attal m repayment

attendya v pay attention (to)

attendyans m attention

attês adj comfortable

attêsva f attêsvaow toilet

attyly v repay

auctoryta m authority

auctour m auctours author

audycyon m audycyons audition

a-ugh prep above

a-uhon adv above

Austol St Austell

automatek adj automatic

aval m avallow apple

aval kerensa m avallow tomato

aval paradîs m avallow grapefruit

avàn adv up, upstairs; in heaven

avarr adv early

avauncya v advance, progress

avell prep as, like; than

aventur m aventurs adventure

aventuryans m venture

avês adv out, outside

avês dhe² prep outside

avîsment m consideration, notice

avîsyans m advice; notification

avîsyor m avîsyoryon superintendent

avîsyores m avîsyoresow female superintendent

avorow adv tomorrow

avow m confession

avowa v confess

avy pers pron I, me

awartha adv above, at the top

awayl m awaylow gospel

awedhya v influence

awedhyans m influence

awel f awellow breeze; weather See also an ragwel wàr an awel

awen f (delightful) inspiration

awhêr m distress

Awhêr vëth! phr Don’t worry!

awhesyth m awhesydhas lark

awoles adv below, at the bottom

awos prep because of; in spite of

awot See otta

awotta See otta

aysel m vinegar

aysel triakel m balsamic vinegar

baby m babiow baby

bachelerieth f baccalaureate

backa See tobackô

backen m bacon

bad attributive adj preceding noun bad, evil

bad-¹ pref bad, evil

badhya v bathe

badna m banahow drop

bad-ober m bad-oberow crime

bagas m bagasow group

bagas ilow m bagasow (musical) band

bagh m bahow hook

baily m bailys bailiff

balad m baladys ballad

balek adj jutting

ballyer m ballyers barrel

bàn See in bàn

banath See bednath

baner m banerow flag

bara m bread

bara cogh m brown bread

bara nowyth m fresh bread

barbaryan m barbaryans barbarian

barbecuw m barbecuwys barbecue

barber m barbers barber

bardh m berdh bard See also an Bardh Meur

bardhek adj bardic

bargen m bargenys bargain

bargen tir m bargenys farm

bargos m bargosas buzzard

bargos paper m bargosas kite (toy)

bargydnya v bargain

bargydnya rag phr agree (something contractually)

bargydnys adj agreed

barnet m barnettys baronet

barr m barrys bar

barr-laghyades f barr-laghyadesow female barrister

barr-laghyas m barr-lahysy barrister

barthusek adj amazing

barv f barvow beard

barv scovarn f side whiskers

bas adj shallow

basket m baskettys basket

basnet m basnettys helmet

batalyas v battle, fight

batel f batalyow battle

Be name of letter B

be va … pò conj whether … or

be va … pò na conj whether … or not

bedh m bedhow grave, tomb

bedha v dare

bedhscrif m bedhscrîvyow epitaph

bedhygla v bellow

bednath f benothow blessing

beggya v beg

beggyer m beggyers beggar

begh m burden

bejeth m face

beler col cress

ben See an eyl hy ben

benary See bys venary

Benatuw! interj Goodbye!

benthygya v borrow

benyn f benenes woman

benyn an laha phr the (female) lawyer

benytha See bys venytha

ber m beryow spit (for roasting)

Bermûda Bermuda

bern m concern

berr adj short See a verr spÿs

berrheans m abbreviation; abridgement, précis

berryk adj fatty

berrscrif m berrscrîvyow (written) summary

berry m fat

Beryan See Eglos Beryan

bès See mès

bës m besias finger; toe

bës brâs m besias thumb

besow col besôwen beeches

best m bestas animal

betraya v betray

bew adj living

bêwa v live (one’s life)

bewek adj lively

bewgraf m bewgrafow biography

bêwnans m life

beybel m beyblow bible

bian adj small, little

biologieth f biology

blam m blame

blâmya v blame

bledhednek adj annual

bledhen f bledhydnyow year

blew col blewen hair

blew lagas col blewen eyelashes

bleydh m bleydhas wolf

bleynya v lead (a card)

blòg m bloggys blog

bloodh m year of age

blou adj blue

bò See pò

bobm m bobmyn bump, punch

bodh See a’y vodh

bodhar adj deaf

bodny m bonias cluster

body m bodys body

bogh m bohas billy goat

bogh f bohow cheek

bohes quant little, not much

bohes coynt phr incompetent

bohes venowgh phr seldom, rarely

bohosak adj poor

bojek adj bushy

bojet m bojettys budget

boll adj see-through

bolla m bollys bowl

bolùnjeth m will

bond m bondys band; tyre

bond codna m bondys collar

bones See bos

boneyl … bò (pò) conj either … or

bonkya v knock (single blow)

bônùs m bônùssow bonus

bool f bolow axe

boosa v feed (animal or machine)

boosty m boostiow restaurant, café

bora m morning (poetical)

bord m bordys table

Borgayn Burgundy

borger m borgers burger

bos avîsys phr make up one’s mind

bos in kendon rag phr owe

bos kesplethys in phr be involved in

bos maglys gans phr be involved with

bos wàr stray phr be lost

bôstya v boast

Bosvena Bodmin

botas col botasen boots

botel m & f botellow bottle

boton m botodnow button; (bumper) badge

box m boxys box

bowyn m beef

brall m brallow dent

bran f bryny crow

bran dre f bryny tre rook

bran rudhyk f bryny chough

branch m branchys branch (often figuratively)

brâs adj big, large See also dre vrâs

brâs y hanow phr famous, renowned

brâstir m brâstiryow continent

brathy v bite (wound)

brav adj fine

brawagh m terror

brawn m brawn

bre f breow hill

bregh f brehow arm

breghtan m breghtanow sandwich

brenyans m instruction(s), notice

brenyas m brenysy bosun, coxswain

brës m mind

bresel f contention, dispute

breselus adj quarrelsome

brest m brass

brèst m chest

Bretednek adj British

Breten Veur Britain

Breten Vian Brittany

Bretmes Brexit

Bretonek m Breton (language)

breus f breusow judgment, opinion

breusyow See breusow

brew adj bruised, broken

brewgig m mince

brêwy v bruise, wound

brewyon col crumbs; mash

briansen f throat

brith adj speckled, streaked

bro f broyow area, district

broder m breder brother

brodnlen f bronlednow bib

Bròn Wenyly Brown Willy

bros adj very hot

bros m stew

brôsweyth m embroidery

brôsya v stitch, embroider

brow coffy m browyow coffee grinder

brows col mash

brusy v judge, assess

bry m value, esteem

bryck m bryckys brick

bryg m bryggys brig

bryght adj bright

bryjyon v boil, cook

bryntyn adj noble

Brystow Bristol

bû interj boo

bualgorn m bualgern bugle; roll call

bùcka gwydn m bùckyas ghost

bùcka nos m bùckyas goblin

bùckanêr m bùckanêrs buccaneer

bùcket m bùckettys bucket

budhek adj victorious

budhy v drown

bufê m bufês buffet

bùlet m bùlettys bullet

bùly bian col bùlien vian pebbles

bùngalow m bùngalows bungalow

bùs See mès

bûsel m dung

bùss m bùssow bus

bùsh m bùshys bush

bùsh quant group (animate or inanimate), amount (inanimate)

buwgh f buhas cow

bycken See bys vycken

byd m bydow ace

bydnar re² phr + subjunctive expresses strongly negative wish

bykîny m bykînys bikini

byldya v build

byldyans m byldyansow building

bylyon m bylyons billion

bys prep up to, until

bÿs m bÿsow world

bys dhe² prep + pron up to, all the way to

bys dy phr up to that point

bys in prep + noun up to, all the way to, until

bys i’n eur-ma phr until now

bys i’n eur-na phr until then

bys may⁵ conj until

bys nefra phr for ever

bys obma phr up to this point

bys pàn² conj until

bys pedn prep for (duration)

bys ty See bys dy

bys venary phr for ever

bys venytha phr for ever

bys vycken phr for ever

bÿs-efan adj worldwide, global

bÿsfel adj wordly wise

bysmêr m scandal

bysow m besewow ring

bysy adj busy; important

bytegyns adv however

Bÿth na lavar a’n dra phr Don’t mention it

byth pàn² See bÿth pàn²

bÿth pàn² conj whenever

bythqweth adv ever past reference

byttele adv nonetheless

cabester m cabestrow halter

cabluster m guilt

cabm adj crooked; wrong

cabm-⁽²⁾ pref crooked; wrong

cabmwonys m/v [make a] mistake

cabûlva f medley; muddle

cachya v catch

cader f caderyow chair (especially of elegance or authority)

cader vrehek f caderyow brehek armchair

caderyor m caderyoryon chair[person]

cadnas f canhasow messenger

cadnas leungalosek f canhasow plenipotentiary

cafos v find; get See also A gev a gafam

cafosyans m acquisition

câken f câkys cake

cala col straw

Cala’ Mê m May Day

calcorieth f mathematics

cales adj hard; difficult

cales lùck phr hard (bad) luck

calesy v harden

caletter m caleterow difficulty

calmynjy m calm

cals a² quant loads of

Cambron Camborne

camdremena v do wrong

camdyby v be mistaken

camhensek adj wicked

camomdhegyans garow m gross misconduct

camp m campys camp

campolla See compla

campùs m campùssow campus

campyor m campyoryon champion

cân f canow song

cana m canys can, tin (of)

cana v sing

canalîsa v canalize

canel m cinnamon

canel f canolyow channel

canfas m canvas

cans m/num a/one hundred See also an cans

cansbledhen f cansbledhednow century (100 years)

cansboos m cansbosow hundredweight

canstel f canstellow basket

cansvledhen See cansbledhen

CANT abbr BTEC

cappa m cappys cap; topping

capten m captenow captain

car m kerens close relative, parent

cara v love; conditional tense used to mean ‘I would like to’

cara warbarth phr make love

caracter m caracterow character (in story)

caradow adj likeable, friendly

caradow m beloved

caradôwder m friendliness

carbon m carbon

caregek adj rocky

cares f caresow girlfriend

Caresk See Keresk

caretys col caretysen carrots

carg m cargow load; charge (electricity)

cargor m cargoryon charger

carnak adj rocky

carnalyta m sex (sexual attractiveness / activity)

caror m caroryon boyfriend

carpenter m carpenters carpenter

carr m kerry car

carr slynkya v kerry sled

carr tir m kerry estate car

carrek f carygy rock

Carrek Loos i’n Coos St Michael’s Mount

carrhens dewblek m carrhensy dual carriageway

carten f cartednow card

cartryjen f cartryjednow cartridge

cartha v purge

carven f carvenow van; carriage (train)

carya v transport

caryans m transport

carygel f carygellow trolley

caryn m carynyas carcass

cas m hatred

casa v hate

casek coos f casygy woodpecker

caskergh m campaign

caslan f casladnow battlefield

caslÿs m caslesyow military camp / headquarters

caspows f caspowsyow coat of mail; flak jacket

câss m câssys case

cast m castys trick

castel m castylly castle

cath f cathas cat

Cathay See Book Three Lesson 15

Catholyk adj Catholic

cauns m pavement

caus m cause

cavach m cabbage

cawdarn m cawdarns cauldron

cawghwas m cawghwesyon mean-spirited fellow

cawl col cawlen cabbages

cawlvlejen f cawlvlejednow cauliflower

cay m cayow quay, jetty; railway platform

Ce name of letter C

Celsyùs Celsius

cent m centys cent

certan adj certain

cessya v cease

cessya heb + verb-noun cease

cessyans m cessation

châcya v chase

chain m chainys chain

chair m chairys chair

challa m challys jowl

chalynj m chalynjys challenge

chalynjya v challenge

chambour m chambours bedroom

chanel See an Chanel

chaplen m chaplens chaplain

charj m task, responsibility; electric charge

chaunj m chaunjys change

chaunjya v change

chaunjya ervirans phr change one’s mind

chauns m chauncys chance, opportunity

chawk m chawkys jackdaw

checkya v check

cher m mood

chersya v pamper

cherya v care for

cheryta m charity

chevysya v borrow

chîcok m & f chîcogas house martin

chif-¹ pref chief, principal

chif-clojiores f chif-clojioresow matron (in a hospital)

Chîna China

choclet m choclettys chocolate

chy adv at home

chy m treven house

Chy an Kenwerth phr The Chamber of Commerce

chy bian m toilet, loo (room)

chy fram m treven timber frame house

chy ros m treven wheelhouse

Chy Wûn Chywoone

chyffar m (commercial) deal(ing)

chyffar dyscowntys m (discount) sale(s)

chymbla m chymblys chimney

cladhgell f cladhgellow crypt

clappya v chat(ter)

class m classys class, category

classyk adj classic(al)

clâv adj sick, ill

clâvyon pl sick people, patients

cledh adj left (side)

cledha m cledhydhyow sword

cledhek adj clumsy, awkward

cledhyans m excavation

clehy m ice

clem m clêmys claim

cler adj clear

clerhe v clarify, explain

cles adj cosy, snug

clethren f clethrednow rail

cleves m clevejow illness, disease

cleves clun m sciatica

cleves strewy m hayfever

client m cliens client

clogh m clegh bell

cloghprednyer pl gibbet

clojior m clojioryon nurse

clojiores f clojiores female nurse

clojy m clojiow hospital

clor adj gentle

clos adj close (together); stuffy (of air)

clos f clojow lattice, grid, rack

clos to f clojow roof rack

clôsya v close up

cloud m cloudys cloud

clout m cloutys (piece of) cloth

clôwes v hear; smell; taste; feel (by touch)

clowyowgh m hullaballoo

clùb m clùbbys club

clun f clunyow hip

côcha m côchys coach

codha v fall; should, ought to

codha warbarth phr collapse verb

codna m conaow neck

codna bregh m conaow wrist

codna tir m conaow isthmus

codnek adj clever

codnek m skill

coffen f coffednow pie

coffy m coffee

coffyjy m coffyjiow café

coffyva f coffyvaow café

cofhe v commemorate; remind

côfyr m cofrow trunk; boot (of car)

cog m cogow cook

cogh adj scarlet

côk m cûcow fishing boat

côk draylya m cûcow trawler

côla m cola

colenky v gulp down

colenwel v fulful; implement

colhan f colanow sheath knife

colhes f mattress; bed (on the ground)

coljy m coljiow college

coll m loss

collel f kellyl knife

collverk m colverkys apostrophe

colm m colmow knot

colm codna m colmow [neck]tie

colmen f colmednow knot

colodnek adj hearty; brave

colon f colodnow heart See also a leungolon

colonecter m heartiness; bravery

colonyow pl innards, intestines

colorya v colour, dye

colour m colours colour

coloven f colovednow column

coloven ros f colovednow steering-column

comen laha m common law

comen talk m common parlance

comen trad m convention

comen voys m consensus

comen welth m commonwealth

comen yêth f colloquial language

comendya v commend; recommend; approve; introduce (someone)

comodyta m comodytys commodity; facility

comolek adj cloudy

comondya v command

company m company

comparya v compare

compes adj straight, right; accurate

compla v mention

completh adj complicated

composa v straighten

comprehendya v include

compressa v oppress, bully

comptya v count

comptyer m comptyers counter

comyck m comycks comic

con f conyow evening dinner

cona v dine, sup

conar f fury

concêvya v conceive

conceyt m concept

conclûdya v conclude (a discussion)

concydra See consydra

condycyons lavur pl working conditions

conery v rage

confort m comfort

confyrmya v confirm

conqwerrya v conquer, subjugate

conscyans m conscience

consecrâtya v consecrate

consel m consels council

consler m conslers councillor

constâbyl m constâblys constable

constrîna v force, compel

consydra v consider

content m contens content

contentya v satisfy

contrary adj contrary

contrast m contrast

controllyans m control(s)

convedhes v perceive, comprehend

convertyans m conversion

convyctya v convict

conyn m conynas rabbit

copy m copiow copy

coos m cosow wood (wooded place)

cor m wax

cor See wàr neb cor

corden f kerdyn string

coref m beer

coref du m stout

coref gell m ale

coref golow m lager

coref jynjyber m ginger beer

corf m corfow body

corf lester m corfow hull

corflan f corfladnow churchyard

corforek adj physical

corn m kern horn

cornel f cornellow corner

cornet m cornettow corner

cornwhylen f kernwhyly lapwing

corol m corolyon dance

corolly v dance

coronal m coronals colonel

corrùpcyon m corruption

cors m corsow course

cors desky m corsow curriculum

cort f cortys court

cortes adj polite

cosel adj quiet, peaceful

coselhe v calm (down)

cosmer m cosmers customer

cosoleth m quiet, stillness

còst m costys cost

còst spênys m costys expense

costly adj costly, expensive

costya v cost

cosyn m cosyns cousin; close friend

cot adj short

côta m côtys coat

coth adj old

cothman m cothmans friend

cothwas m cothwesyon old fellow

coton m cotton

covath m memory, record

covep f covebow monument

coverfu m curfew, lights out

coveytya v covet

covscrefa v register

covva f covvaow hiding-place

covyd m covid

cow adj hollow

cowal adv completely

cowas f cowosow shower

cowas gwyns f cowosow gust

coweth m cowetha companion

cowethas f cowethasow society

cowethas enactya arta f cowethasow historical re-enactment society

cowethas lyfrêson f cowethasow delivery company

cowethasek adj social; sociable

cowethya v associate

cowethyades f cowethyadesow female colleague

cowethyans m cowethyansow association, relationship; organization

cowethyas m cowethysy colleague

cowl m soup

cowl-² pref complete

cowl-dhyfygys adj exhausted, burnt out

cowl-gompes adj (fully) qualified

cowl-lenwys adj completely full

cowl-sùbmen f cowl-sùmednow total

cowntnans m attitude

cowrek adj gigantic, colossal

cows m talk[ing]

cows[a] See côwsel

côwsel v speak

cowsor m cowsoryon speaker

coynt adj curious, odd; canny See also bohes coynt

crafel f crafellow clutch (of car etc)

cragh predicative adj scabby; inferior

cragh-⁽²⁾ pref scabby; inferior

craghjentyl adj snobbish

crambla v climb

crampeth col crampethen pancakes

crampethen oy f crampethednow omelette

cramyas v crawl

cras adj parched; toasted

cravas v scratch

cravellas v scrape

creatur m creaturs creature

creatya v create

crefhe v strengthen

crefny adj tight-fisted, mean

creft f craft

crefter m strength

creftus adj artificial

creftweyth m handicraft

cregy v hang

crehylly v shake, jolt

crejyans f crejyansow religion

crèn m shiver, trepidation

crena v shiver, shudder

crenans m vibration

cres adj middle, medium See also in cres

cres m peace

cresen f cresednow centre (for some activity)

creslu m police

cresor m cresoryon midfielder

cresosek adj mediaeval

cressya See encressya

creswas m creswesyon policeman

cresy v believe

crev adj strong

cria v call; shout

cria in mes phr shout out; exclaim

cris m crisyow shirt, blouse

crispows m crispowsyow waistcoat, bodice

Crist Christ

cristonya v christen

criv adj raw

crobm adj bent; numb

croffolas v complain

crog m gallows

croglen f croglednow curtain

crohen f crehyn skin

cronak m cronogas toad

cronkya v beat

cropya v force (into something)

croust m packed lunch; snack

crow m crowyow shed

crowd m crowdys violin

crowjy m crowjiow cabin

crows f crowsow cross

crowsek adj cross

crowseryow pl crossword

crowsya v crucify

cruel adj cruel

crùllya v curl

cruny v accumulate

crwassont m crwassons croissant

cry m criow cry, shout

crybaj m cribbage

crycket m cricket (game)

crygh m cryhow frill

cryjyk adj religious

cryssat m cryssatas kestrel

cùbert m cùbertys cupboard, locker

cubmyas m cumyasow permission

cubmyas lewyas m cumyasow driving licence

cùcùmysyk m cùcùmysygow gherkin

cudha v cover, hide

cudhan f cudhonas wood pigeon

cudyn m cudydnow difficulty, problem

cufter m kindness

cûgh m cûhow bonnet

cùgol m cùgollow hood

cùhudha v accuse

cul adj narrow

cûlbren m cûlbrednyer club, cudgel

culyak m culyogas cock(erel)

culyak gwyns m culyogas weathercock

culyak reden m culyogas grasshopper

cùmyn m cumin

cuna v kindle, light (a fire)

cùntell v gather

cùntellyans m collection; assembly, meeting

cunys col fuel

cùppa m cùppys tea cup

cùrry m curry

cùrun f cùrunyow crown

cùruna v crown

cùryak m cùryogas facial spot

cùsca v sleep

cùsk m sleep

cùssul f cùssulyow (piece of) advice

cùssulya v advise

cùssulya warbarth phr consult intransitive

cùssulyadores f cùssulyadoresow female advisor

cùssya v curse

cuv adj kind

cuv colon phr dearly beloved, darling

cuv enef phr soulmate

cynema m cynemas cinema

cyrcùmstans m cyrcùmstancys circumstance

cyta f cytas city

cytysan m cytysans citizen

cyvyl adj civil

dâ adj good

dâ m good; property

dâ ha bad phr good and bad

dâ lowr phr good / well enough, okay

Da weles phr Be seeing you

dadhel f dadhlow discussion, debate

dadhelor m dadheloryon debater; barrister

dadhelores f dadheloresow female debater; female barrister

dadhla v discuss, debate

dadn See in dadn

daffar m kit, equipment

daffar lybm m cutlery

dagren f dagrednow (tear)drop

dagrow pl tears (weeping)

dagyer m dagyers dagger

dainty adj delicate

dal See dadhel

dala See dadhla

dalhe v blind

dalhen f grasp

dall adj blind

dallath m beginning

dallath v begin

dalleth See dallath

dalva f dispute; debate

dama wydn f damyow gwydn grandmother

damcanieth f damcaniethow theory

dampna See dampnya

dampnya v condemn

dàn See in dàn⁽²⁾

danjer See heb danjer

dans m dens tooth, fang

danvon v send

dar interj damn (but very mild)

daralla See drolla

daras m darasow door

darbary v prepare

dargan-drog adj ominous

dargana v foretell

darlêsa v broadcast

darleverel v predict

darn m darnow piece

daromres m traffic

Darwynieth f Darwinism

dascreatya v recreate

das’henwel v rename

dasleverel v repeat (something said)

dasleverel partys arâg dorn phr rehearse (play)

dasseny v echo

dasseny partys arâg dorn phr rehearse (orchestral performance)

dassenyans m resonance

dasserhy v rise from the dead

dasserghyans m resurrection

dassteusyans m recycling

dasterevel v rebuild, reconstruct

dastesînya v redesign

dasvêwa v revive

dasvêwor m dasvêworyon revivalist

dauncya v dance

dauncyans m dancing

dauncyor m dauncyoryon dancer

dauns m dauncyow dance

daunslunyans m choreography

davas f deves sheep

De name of letter D

dê adv yesterday

de Gwener adv/m [on] Friday

de Lun adv/m [on] Monday

de Merher adv/m [on] Wednesday

de Merth adv/m [on] Tuesday

de Sadorn adv/m [on] Saturday

de Sul adv/m [on] Sunday

de Yow adv/m [on] Thursday

debâtya v debate

debry v eat

decernya v distinguish

declarya v declare, announce

dêda m dêdys deed

dëdh m dedhyow day

dëdh daras egerys m open day

dëdhdardh m daybreak

dedhewy v promise

dëdhweyth adv in the day; one day

dedhwy v lay eggs

defia v defy

defry adv really, seriously See also yn tefry

deg num ten

degador m degadoryon vehicle

degea v close

deglena v tremble, quiver

degol m holiday (single day)

degolyow pl holiday, vacation

degor m degoryon carrier

degrê m degrês degree (temperature)

degves num tenth

degvledhen f degvledhednow decade

dehen m cream

dehen rew m ice cream

del col dêlen leaves

delergh m stern

dell² conj as; that

dell hevel phr apparently

dell wosta phr as you know

dell yw ûsys phr as usual, usually

delvrysek adj ideal

delycyùs adj delicious

delyfra See delyfrya

delyfrya v deliver; release

delyverans m deliverance, liberation

delyvra See delyfrya

demedhy v marry

demedhyans m marriage

democratieth f democracy

demondya v demand

den m tus man

den an laha phr the (male) lawyer

den durblâtys m tus dhurblâtys man in plate armour

den jentyl m tus jentyl gentleman

den mailys m tus vailys man in chain-mail armour

den vëth pron anyone; no one (when negative implied)

denethy v beget, bring forth

dendyl v earn

deneren f denerednow penny piece

denewy v pour

denledhyas m denledhysy murderer

densel v bite, chew

Densher See Pow Densher

denyl adj human

departya v depart

der² prep through

dèr² See dell²

deraglans m invective, chiding

deray m disorder

derevel v rise; raise, construct

derivadow m information (told or available for telling)

derivas m report

derivas v report, tell

descador m descadoryon teacher

descadores f descadoresow female teacher

descendys a² phr descended from

descrefa v describe

descryvyans m description

deseghyer m deseghyeryow wiper

deseha v dry

desempys adv abruptly; immediately

desînor m desînoryon designer

desînya v design

desîr m desire

desîradow adj desirable

desîrya v desire

desk m deskys desk

deskerny v snarl

desky v learn; teach (to someone)

desmygy v imagine

desmygyans m imagination

desmyk m guess(ing)

despît m contempt, insult See also in despît dhe² / wàr²

despîtya v insult

destna v destine, earmark

destria v destroy

det m dettys debt

determya v determine, decide, conclude

determyans m determination, decision, conclusion

dettor m detoryon creditor

deu adj finished, spent

Deun alebma! phr Let’s go!

devar m duty

devedhys See dos

devera goos phr bleed

devnydhya See Book Three Lesson 15

devnyth m material(s), ingredient(s), subject-matter

devôcyon m devotion, piety

devones See dos

devos See dos

dew² num two

dew cans num two hundred

dewana v pierce, penetrate

dewas m dewosow drink

dewas jynjyber m ginger ale

dewas lymon m lemonade

dewas-wreg f dewas-wrageth pot-girl, barmaid

dêwdhegves num twelfth

dêwdhek num twelve See also an dêwdhek

dewdhorn du handlebar(s)

dewedha v end

dewedhes adj late

dewetha adj latest, last, final, ultimate

dewetha tro phr last time

dewfrik du nose

dewhans adv immediately, quick as you can

dewheles v return

dêwla du (pair of) hands

dewlagas du (pair of) eyes

dêwlin du (pair of) knees See also wàr bedn dêwlin

Dewnans Dumnonia

dewyn m dewydnow beam, ray

dewynya v shine

dewynya tys ha tas phr flash (on and off)

dha² possessive pron your singular; you singular (direct object of verb-noun)

dhana adv then

dhe² prep to

dhe’n dor phr down

dhe’n leur phr down

dhe’n lyha phr at least

dhe dre See tre adv

dhe dybmyn phr to pieces

dhe le phr less; the less

dhe ves phr off, away

dhe voy phr more; the more

dhe well phr better

dhe wir phr truly, really

dhejy personal pron you (emphatic)

dhelergh adv aft

dhelergh See adhelergh

dhia² prep from (place or point in time)

dhort See dhyworth

dhy See dy

dhyrag prep in front of

dhyrag dorn See arâg dorn

dhywar² prep off

dhyworth prep from (person or place)

diamons pl diamonds (card suit)

diank v escape (from danger / imprisonment)

diankva f escapism

dianowy v yawn

diantel adj precarious

diegrys adj shocked

dielvedna v analyse

dien adj entire See also yn tien

diena v pant

diek adj idle

dieth m pity, shame

din m dînyon hill-fort

diogel adj secure, safe

diogeleth m safety

diogely flehes phr child protection, safeguarding

dîsel m diesel

dîvya v dive

dobyl adj double

doctour m doctours doctor (PhD, MD, etc)

dogven f dogvednow document

dohajëdh adv/m [in the] afternoon

dollar m dollars dollar

domhel v overthrow

don v carry, take (by carrying)

dones See dos

dor m ground See also dhe’n dor

Dor Coth Dolcoath

dorgell f dorgellow cellar

dorn m dornow hand (in action)

dornas m dornasow handful, fistful

dorydhieth f geography

dos v come

dos warbydn phr encounter

doth adj discreet, tactful

dôtys wàr² phr mad (passionate) about

dour adj careful, exact

doust m dust

doustya v dust

dov adj tame

down adj deep

downder m depth

dowr m dowrow water

Dowr Cober the River Cober

Dowr Fala the River Fal

Dowr Hudson the Hudson River

Dowr Mahonyer the Helford River

Dowr Tamar the River Tamar

dowr tobm molâss m rum

dowr tobm Wordhonek m Irish whiskey

dowrargh f dowrarhow cistern

dowrgy m dowrgeun otter

dowrvargh m dowrvergh hippopotamus

dowryar f dowryer coot

dowt m dowtys doubt; uncertainty mingled with fear See also heb dowt

dowtya v doubt, fear (have misgivings)

dôwys m choice, selection

dôwys v choose

dôwysyans m election

dr’ See dell²

draggya v drag

draght m draghtys draught (drink, playing-piece); draft

draghtya v draw up, draft

drâma m drama, stage play

dre See tre adv

dre² See der²prep

dre dhorn phr manual(ly)

dre hap phr by chance

dre lycklod phr probably

dre rêson prep because of

dre rêson a² prep + verb-noun, demonstrative pronoun because of

dre vain prep by means of

dre vain a² prep + verb-noun, demonstrative pronoun by means of

dre vrâs phr on the whole, mostly

dre wall phr by accident

drefen conj for

drefen prep because of

drehedhes v reach

drehevel See derevel

dremas m good man

dren m dreyn thorn

dres prep across; past

dres ehen phr extremely

dres ena phr over there

dres hedna phr in addition

dres kynda phr extraordinarily

dres obma phr over here

dres otham phr unnecessary

dreth See treth

dreys col dreysen briars

drîvya v drive

drog m evil

drog predicative adj bad, evil

drog-⁽²⁾ pref bad, evil

drog dens m toothache

drog pedn m headache

drog-aqwytya v be ungrateful

drogdybysak m drogdybysogyon suspect

drog-gerya v slander, speak ill of

drog-ladrynsy m grand larceny

droglam m droglabmow (unfortunate) accident

drogober m drogoberow crime

drogwas m drogwesyon scoundrel

drolla m drollys tale, yarn

droppya v drop

drùshya v thresh

druth adj valuable (jewellery etc)

dry v bring

dry [arta] dhe’n cov phr remind

dryftya v drift

du adj black

duder m blackness, gloom

dûk m dûkys duke

dur m steel

Dùrda dhe why! phr Good day!

Dùrdala dhe why! phr Thank you!

durya v endure, last

dùryan m east; sunrise

dùstuny m dùstuniow witness; evidence

dûta m dûtys duty

Duw genes / genowgh! phr Goodbye!

duwhan m affliction

dworenos adv/m [at] dusk

dy adv (to) there See also bys ty

dybarow adj separate

dybarth m dybarthow separation; departure

dybarth v separate; depart

dyber m dybrow saddle

dyberhedna v confiscate

dyberth See dybarth

dyberthva f distinction; (hospital) ward

dyblans adj distinct

dybos adj trivial

dybowes adj restless

dybrîsyans m depreciation

dybyta adj pitiless

dydhel adj leafless

dydheur verb concern(s)

dydheurek See Book Three Lesson 15

dydhemedhy v divorce

dydhyweth adj unending

dydhemedhyans m divorce

dydo adj homeless

dydoll adj tax-free

dydro adj direct

dydrygh adj indomitable

dyfaladôwder m infallibility

dyfen m prohibition

dyfen v forbid

dyfeth m desert, waste

dyfëth See dyfeth

dyfethya v lay waste

dyfëthya See dyfethya

dyffrans adj different

dyffrans m difference

dyffransyn m dyffransydnow variant

dyffres m protection

dyffres v protect

dyflas adj distasteful, nasty

dyfreth adj feeble

dyfygya v fail, be wanting

dyfygyans m decline

dygabester adj reckless

ygelmy v untie

dyghtya v treat

dyghtyans m treatment

dyghtyor kebmyn m dyghtyoryon gebmyn general manager

dygoweth adj solitary

dygowseja See dygowsejeth

dygowsejeth m dementia

dyharas v apologize

dyheth See dieth

dyhow adj right (side)

dyhow m right (side); south

dyj See dyjyn

dyjyn m dyjydnow dot

dylabedhys adj dilapidated

dylâcya v unlace, untie

dylês adj uninteresting

dylla v emit; publish; fire (employee)

dyllas m dylajow clothes

dynar m denerow penny

dynerhy v send greetings (to)

dynyak adj attractive, tempting

dynyta m dignity

dyowl m dewolow devil

dyowles f dyowlesow she-devil

dyppa m dyppys dip

dyrêwl adj out-of-control

dysawor adj unsavoury

dyscans m learning; teaching

dyscans elvednek m primary education

dyscans nessa m secondary education

dyscans tressa m tertiary education

dyscas m dyscasow lesson; doctrine

dyscler adj dim

dysconfort m discomfort, discontent

dyscor m dyscoryon learner

dyscores f dyscoresow female learner

dyscowntya v discount

dyscryjyk adj sceptical

dyscudha v discover; disclose

dysert m desert

dysevel v upset, knock over

dyskerghyans m gravitation

dyskerheth m gravity

dyskevelsys adj disjointed

dyskybleth m discipline

dyson adv immediately, without another word

dyspêr m despair

dysplegya v unfold; develop

dysplegyans m development

dyspûtya v dispute

dysqwedhes v show

dysqwedhyans m dysqwedhyansow display, exhibition

dystemprys adj upset

dystowgh adv immediately

dystrôwy v destroy

dystryppya v strip

dystyr adj meaningless

dyswil v spoil

dyth m dythys saying, dictum

dyvarrans m pruning

dyvedhow adj sober (not drunk)

dyvers adj diverse, different

dyvers attributive adj preceding noun various

dyvew adj lifeless

dyvlâm adj blameless, innocent

dyvotter m famine

dyvynyon pl choppings

dyw² num two (with feminine noun)

dywenynegy v detox

dyweth m end See also heb dyweth

dywodhaf adj intolerable

dywoskes adj bleak

dywros f dywrosow bicycle

dywros jyn f dywrosow motorcycle

dywros saya f dywrosow exercise bike

dywros trosella f dywrosow push bike

dywrosa v cycle

dywrosyth m dywrosydhyon cyclist

dywscoth du (pair of) shoulders

dywvregh du (pair of) arms

dywweyth adv twice

dywy v blaze

dywyêthek adj bilingual

dywysycter m enthusiasm

dywysyk adj eager

dywysyor m dywysyoryon fan, supporter

e See ev

eâ interj yes

ebron f sky

ebyl lew m ebylyon tiller (of boat)

economek adj economic

economyk m & f economics

edhen m ÿdhyn bird

edhen corf m ÿdhyn ghoul

edrek m regret

eev personal pron he, him, it (masculine) (emphatic)

Ef name of letter F

efan adj expansive, wide

efander m space

effeth m effethyow effect

effethus adj effective, efficient

egerel f egerellow opener

egery v open

eglos f eglosyow church

Eglos Beryan St Buryan

Eglos Melan Mullion

egydna v bud

ehen f ehenow kind See also dres ehen

El name of letter L

el m eleth angel

electronek adj electronic

element m elementys element

Elen Benvelen Goldilocks

elhas interj alas

ely m remedy

elyn adj clean, net

Em name of letter M

emôcyon m emôcyons emotion

empathy m empathy

empîr m empire

emprour m emprours emperor

En name of letter N

en See in

ena adv there; then See also dres ena

ena See enef

enactya v enact

encledhyas m burial, funeral

encledhyas v bury

encressya v increase

enef f enevow soul

Enesow Heleth The Hebrides

Englond England

enjoya v enjoy

enep m enebow surface

ensampyl m ensamplys example

entra v enter intransitive

entrans m entransow entrance

entryng m entrance

envy m envy; enemy

enys f enesow island

er prep by (only a few specific usages)

Er name of letter R

erba m erbys herb; garden vegetable

erber m erbers herb / kitchen garden

erbydn See warbydn

erbysy v save (make savings)

erbysyas m erbysysy frugal person

erel See aral

ergh m snow

erhy v order; book

erna² conj until

ernag See erna²

ernysh adj earnest

erôsyans m erosion

erow’hës m erow’hësow furlong

errour m errours error, mistake

errya v err

ertach m heritage

ervira v decide, determine, conclude

erya v defy

eryta v inherit

Es name of letter S

ês m ease

ès prep than

ès dell² conj than

esedha v sit (down) intransitive

esedhva f esedhvaow seat; sitting-room, lounge

esel m esely limb, member

Esel Seneth (ES) m Esely Member of Parliament

eseleth m membership

eseth f esedhow seat See also a’y eseth

eskernjy m eskernjiow rendering house

eskyna v mount (horse, bicycle), board (vehicle); take off (aircraft)

eskys f eskyjyow shoe

esow m destitution

essens m essencys essence

establyshya v establish

estêmya v admire

ester col estren oysters

estrednek adj foreign

estrek f estregow oyster bed

estren adj foreign, alien

estrenegy v alienate

estyll col estyllen shelves

êsy adj easy

et See in

êtegves num eighteenth

êtek num eighteen

eternyta m eternity

etew m etewy log (for burning)

eth m êthow vapour

eth num eight

êthedna v steam

êthves num eighth

eur f euryow time (specific) See also bys i’n eur-ma, bys i’n eur-na, i’n eur-ma, i’n eur-na

euryador m euryadoryon timetable

euryor m euryoryon watch

euth m terror

euthres m stampede

euthwas m euthwesyon terrorist

euver adj futile

euvereth m futility

ev pron he, him, it (masculine)

eva v drink

evredhyon pl disabled people

evreth adj disabled

Evrok York

ew col ewen yews

ewhias m ewhiasow raid

ewl f craving

ewl boos f appetite

ewn adj right, correct; fair (just)

êwna v repair

êwnans m êwnansow repair

Ewny Redrudh Redruth

ewon col foam

ewon omwolhy col bubble bath

ewrô m ewrôs euro

Ewrôpek adj European

Ex name of letter X

exaltyans m exaltation

experyens m experience

eyl See an eyl hy ben, an eyl y gela, an eyl … y gela

eylgelghyans See dassteusyans

eylyans m alternation

eythyn col furze, gorse

facly v flare (up)

faclyans m conflagration

fagas col fagosen faggots

faint adj faint

fakel briansen f sore throat

fakel mellow f arthritis

faladow See heb faladow

falja v split

fâls predicative adj false

fals m faljow crack

fâls-⁽²⁾ pref false

fâls-gwary m foul (in football etc)

fâlsury m treachery

fara m conduct

fardellow pl luggage

fardellyk m fardelygow package

fâss m fâssow face

fassyon m fassyons fashion

fast adj firm

fatell adv/conj how; that

fatla adv how

Fatla genes / genowgh? phr How are you?

fav coffy col faven coffee beans

fav pebys col baked beans

fay m fayes fairy

fay m faith

fëdh f faith

fedna v overflow, flood

fekyl predicative adj insincere

fekyl-⁽²⁾ pref insincere

fekyl-cher m insincerity

felder m cunning

felshyp m friendship; staff; crew

fenester f fenestry window

fenten f fentydnyow spring, fountain

fentenva f fentenvaow spa

ferdhyn m ferdhydnow farthing

fers adj fierce

ferv adj firm

fery m parish feast

fesont m fesons pheasant

fest adv very, really

fest f festyow feast

fêsya v drive out

feth m & f fêthyow fact

fetha v defeat

Fethys glân ov vy! phr I give up!

fia v flee

fia dhe’n fo phr flee, run away

fienasow pl anxiety

fylosofy m philosophy

fin adj fine

finweth toth f finwedhow speed limit

flapjack m flapjacks flapjack

flattra v flatter, cajole

fler m stench

flogh m flehes child

floghcovia v babysit

floghva f floghvaow nursery

floghwith m childcare

flohyl adj childish

flour adj unequalled

flour m flourys flower

flows m nonsense

flû m flu

flûr m flûrys deck

fo m flight (fleeing)

fol adj foolish

fol m felyon fool

folen f folednow page, sheet

folwherthyn v giggle

fon m fônow phone

fordh f fordhow way; road

forest m forest

forgh f fergh (also ferhy) fork

formya v form, make

forn f fornow oven; stove

forsâkya v forsake, abandon

fortyn m fortune

fos f fosow wall

fôtô m fôtôs photo

fowt m lack; defect

fra See prag and praga

fra na² See prag na²

fraga See prag and praga

fraga na² See prag na²

fram m frame

franchys m freedom

frank adj free

frank m francow franc

Frank m Francas Frenchman

franklyn m franklyns freeholder

frankwober m frankwobrow honorarium

frêga v shred

fresk adj fresh

freth adj eager, energetic

fria v free

fria v fry

frig m frigow nostril; pl also nose

frobmans m agitation

frobmus adj nervous

frodn f frodnow bridle; brake

frodn dhorn f frodnow dorn hand brake

frodnel f frodnellow brake pedal

fros m flow

frôsek adj fluent

froth m stir, tumult

frût m frûtys fruit

Frynk France

Frynkek adj French

Frynkek m French (language)

fug-² pref fake

fùgen Dhanek f fùgednow Danek Danish pastry

fug’hanow m fug’henwyn pseudonym

fuglien m fiction

fugya v fake, forge

fugyon pl sham

fùndacyon m foundation

fùndya v found, establish

fùndyans m institution

Fùndyans Benenes m Women’s Institute

fur adj wise, sensible

furneth m wisdom

furvlen f furvlednow form (document)

furvlen toll f furvlednow tax return

furvus adj formal

fusen f fusednow rocket

fusta v thresh; beat

fusyk adj lucky

fycsyon m fiction

fygùr m fygùrs figure

fyllel v fail

fylm m fylmys film

fynyshya v finish

fyrmament m firmament

fysk m rush

fysky m/v rush

fysment m fysmens countenance

fystena v hurry

fysyk m & f physics

fyt m fyttys match (sport)

fytty adj (very) suitable

fyttya v fit

gà³ See aga³

gaja m gajys pledge See also Ow gaja dhe why

gal m galow villain, ‘rat’

galarow pl affliction

gallas See mos

gallos m power, ability

gallos v be able to

galon m galons gallon

galosek adj powerful

galow m galowow call; invitation

galwans m galwansow profession

galwansus adj professional

gàn See agan

’gan infixed pron us; to us

ganow m ganowow mouth See also wàr anow

ganowas m ganowasow mouthful

gans prep along with; by

gans an howl phr clockwise

gans hedna phr thereupon; moreover, besides

gans màl phr eagerly

gans rach phr carefully

garma v cry out, bawl

garow adj rough

garr f garrow leg

garth m & f gardhow yard

gàs See agas

’gas infixed pron you (plural or stranger); to you (plural or stranger)

Gas cavow dhe wandra! phr Stop worrying!

gasa v leave, let

gasa dhe godha phr drop

gass m gas

Ge name of letter G

gedya v guide

gedyans m guidance

gela See an eyl y gela, an eyl … y gela

geler f gelerow coffin

gell adj (light) brown

gelwel v call; invite

gèn See gans

genesyk adj native

genys adj born

ger m geryow word

gerednow pl gobbledygook; banter

gerva f gervaow vocabulary

gerys dâ phr respectable

ges m joking

geseth m irony

Gesowgh in cres! phr Do not disturb!

gest f gysty bitch

Gestâpô m Gestapo

gîky v peep

gis m manner, style

gladn f gladnow bank (of river); seashore

gladn gales f gladnow cales hard shoulder

glân adj clean

glân adv very, completely

glanhe v clean

glanheans m cleaning

glanythor dens m glanythoryon dental hygienist

glanythores dens f glanythoresow female dental hygienist

glas adj See Book One Lesson 1

glas m maw

glasny m greenness (of vegetation)

glavorya v dribble, drool

glaw m rain

glawlen f glawlednow umbrella

glëb adj wet

glebya v wet

glebyans m precipitation (rain etc)

glebyor m moisturizer

glenans m clinging

glesyn m glesydnow lawn

glew adj bright, intense

glin m glinyow knee

glory m glory

gloos f glosow pain

gloryùs adj glorious

glujek adj sticky

glus m glue

glûth m dew; condensation

glyttra v glitter

gnas f gnâsyow character

gober m gobrow wage, salary

gobonya v trot; jog

gobra v pay, remunerate

gocky adj silly, stupid

God spêda dhis! phr Good luck!

goderry v interrupt (something)

godhaf v undergo

Godhalek m Irish (language)

godhevel See godhaf

godhvos m knowledge

godhvos v know (facts); know how to

godorrva f interruption

godros v threaten

gogleth m north

gohebyth m gohebydhyon reporter

goheles v shun, avoid

gol m gôlyow goal (football etc)

golegyth m golegydhyon editor

goles m golesow bottom, base See also wàr woles

golesky v scorch, singe

golf m golf

golghty m golghtiow wash house, laundry

golghva f golghvaow bathroom

golghyon pl suds

golhy v wash

golia v wound

golok f look; scene

golow m golowys light

Golowan m Midsummer

golôwder m brightness

golowy v glow, gleam

golsowes v listen [to]

golsowyas m golsowysy listener

golvan chy m golvanas house sparrow

golvan ke m golvanas dunnock

goly m goliow wound

golya v sail

gôlya v celebrate

golyans m sailing

gôlyor m gôlyoryon watchman, look-out

gon m gonow gown

gonesyas jorna m gonesyjy journeyman

gonys v cultivate

gonysegeth f culture

goodh f godhow goose

goodh dhor See goodh’or

goodh’or f godhow dor mole

gool m golyow festival

gool m golyow sail

gool brâs m golyow mainsail

gool demedhyans m golyow wedding reception

goos m blood

gordhuwher adv/m [in the] evening

gordhya v worship

gordhyans m worship

gorenys f gorenesow peninsula

gorfedna v finish

gorfen See heb gorfen

gorgis m distrust, suspicion

gorhal m gorholyon ship

gorhebmyn v bid, wish

gorhemynadow See gormynadow

gorher m gorheryow cover, lid

gorlanwes m surplus; luxury

gorlewen f west; sunset

gorlywa v exaggerate

gorlywans m exaggeration

gorm adj (dark) brown

gormel v praise

gormola v praise, compliment(s)

gormynadow m commandment

gorotham m gorothobmow emergency

gorra v put; take (to a place)

gorras m gorrasow lift, ride (in a vehicle)

gorsaf m gorsavow station

gorsaf bùssow m gorsavow bus station

gorseans m praise

gorseth f gorsedhow gorsedh

gorsempelhe v over-simplify

gorthter m stubbornness

gortheby v answer; correspond (to something)

gorthyp m gorthebow answer, reply

gortos v wait (for); stay (in a state)

gorvarhas f gorvarhajow supermarket

gorvok m emissions

gorwel m horizon

gorweles v hallucinate

gorweytha v overwork

gosa v bleed

gosel f gosêlyow runner (of sled)

goslowes See golsowes

gosogen f gosogednow black pudding

gostyth adj obedient

gour m gwer husband

gourgath m gourgathas tom-cat

gov m govyon smith

govel f govelyow workshop, garage (for repairs)

govelya v smithy

govenek m hope See also re bo govenek

gover m goverow brook

governans m governansow government

Govy! interj Oh no! Alas!

govyn m enquiry; request

govyn v ask, enquire, request

govynadow m enquiries

gow m gowyow lying (falsehood) See also heb gow

gradh See neb gradh

gradhegy v grade

gradhva f gradhvaow scale

gradhyans m graduation

gràm m gramow gram

gramer m grammar

grappa m grappys grape

grâss m grassow grace; thanks

Grâss e dhe Dhuw! Phr Thank God! Thank goodness!

grassa v [dhe²] thank

grassyans m gratitude

graunt m grauntys grant

grauntya v grant

gre m rank, status

Grêk m Grêkys Greek (person)

grêlyn m & f horse pond

greun olew col greunen olives

greunvoos m cereal

greuv m front (of body or figuratively)

grêvons m ailment

grêvùs adj grievous

grib m grîbas grebe

gromercy interj thank you

gromyal m/v growl

gròn m mass, huddle

grow m grit

growedha v lie (down)

groweth m lying (down) See also a’y wroweth

grug col heather

grugys m grugysow belt; zone

grugys eseth m grugysow seat belt

grugys kerdhes m grugysow pedestrianized zone

gu m guow woe

gùdhùgen f gùdhùgednow collar

gul See gwil

gùlan f gùlanas gull

gùtrel m furniture

gwadn adj weak; lax

gwadn-⁽²⁾ pref weak; lax

gwadnrêwl f mismanagement

gwadnwosek adj pallid

gwag adj empty; blank; hungry

gwain m gwains gain

gwainya v win

gwainyor m gwainyoryon winner

gwakhe v empty

gwalgh m glut

gwalha v glut

gwallus adj casual

gwana v pierce

gwandra v wander

gwara m goods, merchandise

gwara boos m groceries

gwarak f gwaregow bow; arch

gwardya v guard

gwaregor m gwaregoryon bowman, archer

gwarior m gwarioryon player; actor

gwarnya v warn

gwarnyans m gwarnyansow warning

gwartha m gwarthavyon top, summit

gwarthek col (horned) cattle

gwary m game; stage play

gwary v play

gwary bord m gwariow board game

gwaryjy m gwaryjiow theatre

gwaryva f gwaryvaow stage (theatre)

gwas m gwesyon assistant; waiter; fellow, chap, guy

gwasca v press

gwascas m pressure

gwastas adj level, even

gwastyans m desolation

gwâv m gwavow winter

gway m gwayow move

gwaya v move

gwayans m gwayansow movement

gwaynten m spring (season)

gweder m glass; mirror

gweder lyw m stained glass

gwederjy m gwederjiow greenhouse

gwëdh col gwedhen trees

gwedhowes f gwedhowesow widow

gwednal f gwenyly swallow

gwednal dhu f gwenyly du swift

gwedrans dewblek m double glazing

gwedrek adj glassy

gwedren f gwedrednow glass, tumbler

gwedrow howl pl sunglasses

gweff See gwyw

gwel m & f sight; scene

gwel m gwelyow (open) field

gwel col sticks

gwel wàr an bÿs phr general attitude, outlook

gwelen f gwelyny stick

gwelen maglednow f gwelyny gear lever

gweles m sight

gweles v see

gwelha adj best

gwelhe v improve

gwelhevyn pl aristocracy

gweljow m gwelsevyow (pair of) scissors

gwell adj better See also dhe well

gwella v improve

gwels col grass

gwely m gweliow bed

Gwengamp Gwengamp (French, Guingamp)

gwenwherthyn v grin

gwer adj green

gweres m help

gwerhes f gwerhesow virgin (religious contexts)

gwern f gwernow mast

gwerrya v make war

gwerryans m gwerryansow war

gwerryans bredereth m gwerryansow civil war

gwers f gwersyow verse

gwerth f sale

gwertha v sell

gwerthjy m gwerthjiow store, retail outlet

gweryn f folk

gwerynor m gwerynoryon peasant

gweskel v strike

gweth adj worse (high register)

gwetha adj worst (high register)

gwetha v See gwitha

gwethyas m gwethysy keeper

gwethyas an âls m the coastguard

gwethyas treth m gwethysy lifeguard (at beach)

gwethyn adj pliable

gwetyas v expect

gwe’us f gwessyow lip

gwêvyans m wave (of hand etc)

gweyth f gweythyow time, occasion

gweyth m gweythyow work (that is accomplished)

gweyth ser predn m carpentry

gweythor plobm m gweythoryon plumber

gwia v weave

gwias m web; internet

gwiasva f gwiasvaow website

gwil v make; do; auxiliary forming future, preterite, future-in-the-past, conditional tenses

gwil devnyth a² phr utilize, make use of

gwil ergh phr snow verb

gwil fors phr (a²) mind, care (about)

gwil ges a² phr make a fool of

gwil glaw phr rain verb

gwil gweres dhe² phr help verb

gwil keser phr hail verb

gwil leun amendys phr make full amends

gwil mencyon a² phr mention verb

gwil mêstry a² phr master

gwil mêstry wàr² phr dominate

gwin m wine

gwin jynjyber m ginger wine

gwir adj true

gwir m gwiryow truth; right See also in gwir

gwiryon adj honest

gwith m protection; care

gwith lafyl m custody

gwitha v keep

gwiùs adj sinuous

gwlân col wool

gwlanek m gwlanegyon jumper

gwlas f gwlasow country (political)

gwlasegor m gwlasegoryon statesman, politician

gwradnen f gwranednas wren

gwredhek adj original

gwrëdh col roots

gwredhen f gwredhyow root

gwredhya v take root

gwreg f gwrageth wife

gwres f heat (mostly figuratively)

gwrës See gwil

gwrians m action

gwrias v sew

gwrioneth See in gwrioneth

gwrÿs m crystal(s)

gwrysa v crystallize

gwrÿth f actions, doing

gwybessa v ‘go catching gnats’ = waste time

gwybya v dart, sprint

gwycor m gwycoryon trader

gwycores f gwycoresow female trader

gwydhyô m gwydhyôs video

gwydn adj white

gwydn y vÿs phr fortunate, well off

gwydnlîm See lim gwydn

gwydnlîmya v whitewash

gwydnrudh adj pink

gwydnvÿs adj fortunate, well off

gwydnyk adj whitish, pale

gwydyla v wriggle

gwylfos m wilderness

gwyls adj wild

gwynder m whiteness

gwynkya v wink

gwyns m gwynsow wind

gwynsak adj windy

gwyras f gwyrosow liquor

gwyras Rùssyan f vodka

gwysca v put on (clothing); dress

gwyscas m gwyscosow covering; layer

gwystla v wager

gwythres m gwythresow activity

gwythresa v operate, function

gwythresek adj active

gwyver m gwyvrow wire

gwyw adj suitable

gyllys See mos

Ha name of letter H

ha conj/prep and; with

hâ See how

ha … ha conj both … and

[ha] na hens phr and not before, at the earliest

ha’y davas in y vogh phr tongue in cheek

hacter m ugliness

hag See ha

hager predicative adj ugly, nasty

hager-⁽²⁾ pref ugly, nasty

hager-gowas f torrential rain

hàm m ham

hanaf m hanavow cup

hanafer m hanafers hamper

hanaja v sigh

hanas m sigh

handla v handle

haneth adv tonight, this evening

hangya v hang

hangya in nes phr depend on (contingency)

hanow m henwyn name; reputation

hanow tyller m henwyn tyleryow place-name (see Book Three Lesson 8)

hans See in hans, in hans dhe²

hanter m hanterow half

hanter-broder m hanter-breder half-brother

hanter-cans m/num fifty

hanter-dëdh m midday

hanter-nos f midnight

hanvos m existence

hardh adj ‘able and bold’, competent, decisive

hardha v bark

harlot m harlos scoundrel

harlych adv exactly

has col hasen seeds

hast m haste

hâtya v hate

hautîn adj imperious

hâv m havow summer

haval adj similar

havysy pl summer tourists

hawnsel m breakfast

hay interj hey

hayl m estuary

heb prep without

heb danjer phr unreservedly

heb dhanjer See heb danjer

heb dhowt See heb dowt

heb dhyweth See heb dyweth

heb dowt phr without doubt, of course

heb dyweth phr endlessly

heb faladow phr without fail; without exception

heb gorfen phr endlessly

heb gow phr without doubt

heb let phr straightaway

heb let na strech phr straightaway

heb lettya phr straightaway

heb mar phr certainly, of course

heb namoy phr only

heb worfen See heb gorfen

heb wow See heb gow

heb y dylly phr without deserving it

hebasca f comfort

hebaskhe v calm down

heblythter m flexibility

hebma pron this [one] (masculine)

hedhes m range

hedhes v reach

hedhy v stop, cease intransitive

hedhyw adv today

hedna pron that [one] (masculine)

hedre conj so long as

hegas adj heinous

hegof adj memorable

hel adj generous, hospitable

hel m & f helow hall

helavarder m eloquence

helerhy v detect

Heleth See Enesow Heleth

helgh m hunt

helghya v hunt

hell adj tardy, reluctant

Hellës Helston

helosk adj inflammable

helygweyth m wicker

helyk col helygen willows

hèm See hebma

hèn See hedna

henath m (succeeding) generation

henavak m henavogyon alderman

hendhyscansek adj archaeological

hendrajy m hendrajiow museum

hens m hensy way (usually figurative); lane (on road)

hens dywrosa m hensy cycle lane

hens horn m hensy railway

hensador m hensadoryon satnav

henwhedhel m henwhedhlow legend

henys m old age

herdhya v push, shove

herdhyans peder ros m four-wheel drive

hernes m harness; equipment

herwyth prep according to See also in herwyth

herwyth an lytheren phr literally

hës m length

hesken f heskednow saw

heudh adj gleeful, merry

heudh m joy, glee

hevelep m resemblance

hevelepter m similarity

hevelly v seem; liken, compare

hevleny adv this year

hevys m hevysyow smock, shirt

hevys hewel melen m hevysyow hi-vis jacket

hewel adj visible

hewelder m visibility

heweres adj helpful

hig m higow hook

hir adj long; tall (of people)

hirbedrak adj/m hirbedrogyon oblong

hirder m length

hireth f longing

hirethek adj wistful, nostalgic

hobba m hobbys hobby, pastime

hobma this [one] (feminine)

hocky m hockey

hockya v hesitate

hodna that [one] (feminine)

hogh m hohas hog

hôk m hôkys hawk

holan m salt

holergh adj late

Holland Holland

holya v follow

holyans m succession

holyor m holyoryon follower

hòm See hobma

hòn See hodna

honen m self

honen-vewgrafek adj autobiographical

honensys m identity

hons See in hons, in hons dhe²

hoos m heyjy duck

hoos gwyls m heyjy mallard

hora f horys whore

hordh m hordhas ram

hos adj hoarse

hot m hottys hat

hot bowler m hottys bowler hat

hothfy v bubble

how interj hi

howl m sun, sunshine

howldrevel m sunrise See also an Howldrevel

howlek adj sunny

howlsedhas m sunset See also an Howlsedhas

hùbbadùllya m racket (noise)

hùbbadrylsy m racket (noise)

huda v enchant

hudhes col bed coverings

hudhyk adj merry

hudol adj magical

hûjes adj huge

hùmblya v humble

hùmbrank v lead

hùmbrynkyas m hùmbrynkysy leader, head (of department etc)

hûmour m humour

hunek adj sleepy

hunros m hunrosow dream

hunrosa v dream

hùrâ interj hurray

hus m magic

hy personal pron she, it (feminine)

hy³ possessive pron her; her, it (feminine) (direct object of verb-noun)

hyga v cheat

hyhy personal pron she, it (feminine) (emphatic)

hynt m hyntys hint

I name of letter I

idhyl adj puny

idhyow col ivy

idnyal adj wild, rugged

iffarn m iffarnow hell

ilow m music

imajery m imagery

imajya v image

imajya dassenyans tenvenek phr magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

in prep in; into

i’n contrary part phr on the contrary

i’n eur-ma phr now

i’n eur-na phr then

i’n gwelha prës phr fortunately

i’n gwetha prës phr unfortunately

i’n kettermyn phr at the same time

i’n mên-termyn phr meanwhile

i’n tor’-ma phr now

i’n tor’-na phr then

in bàn phr up

in cres prep in the middle of

in dadn² prep under

in dadn an rewboynt phr below freezing

in dadn gel phr secretly

in dàn⁽²⁾ See in dadn²

in dêda phr indeed

in despît dhe² prep in spite of

in despît wàr² See in despît dhe²

in gwir phr indeed

in gwrioneth phr really, actually

in gwiryoneth See in gwrioneth

in hans phr beyond

in hans dhe² prep beyond

in herwyth prep + possessive pron around (only used of clothing, companions)

in hons See in hans

in hons dhe² See in hans dhe²

in kerdh phr away

in kergh See in kerdh

in kerhyn prep with possessive pron all around

in ketelma phr in the same way

in kever prep with possessive pron in respect of, in relation to

in le prep instead of

in le a² prep + verb-noun, demonstrative pronoun instead of

in mes phr out, outside

in mes a² prep out of

in mesk prep among

in nans phr down

in neb le phr somewhere

in nes phr near(er)

in nes prep + noun near

in ogas prep with possessive pron near

in pan vaner phr in what way

in poynt dâ phr in good form

in pùb le phr everywhere

in rag phr forwards

in udn² phr + verb-noun makes descriptive adverbial phrase

in udn rew phr in a row

inclûdya v include

inclynya v incline; nod (head)

indelha adv like that

indelma adv like this

informatyk m & f ICT

inherytans m inheritance

inia v urge

injynor m injynoryon engineer

injynores f injynoresow female engineer

injynorieth f engineering

ink m ink

inspîrya v inspire

intendya v intend

inter prep between; among

inter an dhew wolow phr [at] dusk

intra See inter

inwedh adv also

inya See inia

ion m ionow ion

iredy adv indeed

is-¹ prefix sub-, subordinate, deputy, etc

is-caderyor m is-caderyoryon vice-chair[person]

is-caderyores f is-caderyoresow vice-chairwoman

iscarg m iscargow download

isel adj low

Iselalman adj Dutch

iselbris adj cheap

iskel m stock, broth

ispoynt m ispoyntys minimum

ispoyntek adj minimum

is-starneth m infrastructure

istorek adj historical

istory m history

istyna v extend; hand (something to someone)

Italek m Italian (language)

Italy Italy

Italyan adj/m Italyans Italian

jacûzy m jacûzys jacuzzi

Japanek adj Japanese

jazz m jazz

Je name of letter J

jel m gel

jel cowas m shower gel

jeneral adj general

jeneral m jenerals general

jerkyn m jerkyns jacket

Jesu See Jesus

Jesus Jesus

jolyf adj jolly, cheerful

jolyfta m sprightliness

jorna m jornys day

jornal m jornals magazine

Jovyn Jove

jowal m jowelys jewel

joy m joy

joya See enjoya

jùj m jùjys judge

jùjya v judge

jùnya v join

jùstys m jùstycyow justice; magistrate (that is, justice of the peace)

jy pron you singular (subject or with inflected preposition)

jyb m jybbys jib

jyn m jynys engine; machine

jyn dywros See dywros jyn

jynek adj automated

jynjyber m ginger

Ke name of letter K

ke m keow fence; hedge

ke lesta m keow barrier

keas v enclose

keber f kebryow beam; chevron

kebmyn adj common

kebmys a / dell woraf phr as far as I know

kedhow m mustard

kedna v form a skin

kedrydn m & f row, (violent) quarrel

kefrës adv too (also)

kefrës ha prep as well as, in addition to

kefrës … ha conj both … and

kegy v cook

kegyn f kegynas jay

kegyn f kegynow kitchen

kegyn-kynyowva f kitchen-diner

kegynieth f cooking, cuisine

kegynores f kegynoresow female cook

kehaval adj similar

keheryn m keherydnow muscle; lean meat

kekefrës = kefrës (emphatic)

kel See in dadn gel

keles v conceal

kelgh m kelhow circle

kelly v lose; miss

kelmy v tie; connect

kelorn m kelornow pail

Keltek adj Celtic

kelus adj secretive

kelyllyk m & f kelylygow pocket knife

Kembra Wales

Kembrek m Welsh (language)

kemeneth f kemenethow community

kemeres v take

kemeres marth phr be astonished

kemeres meth phr be ashamed

kemeres tan phr catch fire

kemeres with phr take care

kempen adj tidy

kempensys m tidiness

kemyk m & f chemistry

kemynro m kemynroyow legacy

kemysky v mix

ken adj other; instead

ken adv otherwise

ken m cause; lawsuit

kenderow m kenderewy male cousin

kendon f indebtedness; liability / liabilities

kendonor m kendonoryon borrower (of money), debtor

kenedhel f kenedhlow specific generation; nation

kenertha v boost, encourage

kenkya v bicker

kensa num first

kenseth m kensedhow lobby

kensêwha m a.m.

kenter f kentrow nail

kentervys adj hectic

kentrevak m kentrevogyon neighbour

kentrewy v nail

kentrydna v stimulate

kenwerth m commerce

kenyn col kenynen leeks

kenyn ewynak col garlic

kenytherow f kenytherewy female cousin

kenyver attributive adj preceding noun every

kenyver onen pron everyone

kepar adj of that / the same sort

kepar dell² conj just as / like

ker adj dear, expensive

kerdh m kerdhow walk See also in kerdh

kerdhes v walk

kerdhes [in] aray phr march verb

kerdhes in mes gans phr see, date, go out with

kerdhfôn m kerdhfônow mobile phone

kerdhor m kerdhoryon walker, pedestrian

kerens pl close kin; parents

kerensa f love

Keresk Exeter

kereth f penalty (disciplinary action)

kergh col oats

kergh See in kergh

kerhes v fetch

kerhyn See in kerhyn

kernek adj horned

Kernow m Kernowyon Cornishman

Kernow f Cornwall

Kernowegor m Kernowegoryon Cornish speaker

Kernowegy v Cornish

Kernowek m Cornish (language)

Kernowes f Kernowesow Cornishwoman

kersek f kersegow fen

kert hir m kertys lorry

kervyans m carving; carvery

Kerwrangon Worcester

keryn troncas f kerynyow bath tub

keschaunj m exchange

keschaunjya v exchange, swap

kescolonecter m sympathy

kescomûnyans m communication

kescovedhyans m sympathy, commiseration

kescoweth m kescowetha chum

kescowethyans m kescowethyansow partnership

kescows m conversation

kescôwsel v have a conversation

kescùssulyans m conference

keser col keseren hail

kesgwlasek adj international

kes’hens m kes’hensy junction

kesky v admonish

keslînek adj parallel

keslowena f congratulations

keslytherednans m alliteration

keslytherednek adj alliterative

kesobery v co-operate

kesolcan m kesolcanow alloy

kesperhen m kesperhednyon co-owner

kesplethys See bos kesplethys in

kespos m balance

kesposa v balance

kesqwary m interplay

kessedhegor m kessedhegoryon committee member

kessedhek m kessedhegyon committee

kesstrîf m kesstrîfow competition

kestaf m kestavow contact

kestalkya v have a chat

kesudnya v combine

kesudnyans lavur m trade union

keswel m & f keswelyow interview

ketelma See in ketelma

keth adj See an keth

keth m kêthyon slave

kethsam See an kethsam

kettel² conj as soon as

kettep attributive adj preceding noun each and every

kettep gwas phr each and every guy

kettep mab brodn phr everyone (emphatic)

kettep onen phr each and every one (people, things)

kettep pedn phr each and every one (people)

kettep poll phr each and every one (people)

kettep tabm phr each and every bit

kettermyn See i’n kettermyn

kettesten f kettestednow context

kettoth ha’n ger phr immediately

keudh m sorrow

keur m keuryow choir

keus m cheese

keus lefans m toadstools

keus Parma m Parmesan [cheese]

kevadran f kevadradnow faculty (at university)

kevambos m kevambosow contract

kevarhewy v invest

kevarhow pl investment(s)

kevarwedhor m kevarwedhoryon director

kevarwedhyans m direction(s), instruction(s)

kever See in kever

keveryans m orientation

kevothak adj powerful, rich

kevradna v share

kevran f kevradnow share

kevrednak in phr partaking in

kevren f kevrenyon link

kevres m & f kevresow series

kevrîn m kevrînyow secret

kevrînek adj secret; mysterious

kevrînyas m kevrînysy mystic

kew gres f kewyow cres central reservation

kewar f weather

kewargh col hemp

kewerder m accuracy, precision

keworra v add

keybal m ferry boat

keyfordh f keyfordhow tunnel

keyn m keynow back

keyn lester m keynow keel

keynvor m ocean

kig m flesh; meat

kig yar m chicken (meat)

kigek adj fleshy

kigor m kigoryon butcher

kil m kîlyow back

kildedna v withdraw

kildro f kildroyow recession

kilfenester f kilfenestry bay-window

kilgans m kilgansow crescent

Kilgoodh Ust Cape Cornwall

kîlogram m kîlogramow kilo[gram]

kîlomêter m kîlomêtrow kilometre

kilva f kilvaow background

knack adv right, just

Knack Snap (card game)

knack obma phr right here

knava m knavys rascal; knave, jack (at cards)

knoukya v knock (often multiple blows)

know col knofen nuts

Kresen (= Cresen) Kernow f is an historical / cultural institution in Redruth

ky m keun dog

kyddaw m kyddawas guillemot

kydnyaf m autumn

kydnyow m kynyewyow dinner

kyfeth m preserve (jam or marmalade)

kyfethya v preserve (food); tan

kyfeyth See kyfeth

kyffewy col party

kyfya v confide in

kyn conj though, although

kyn See kyns [ès]

kyn na² conj though / although … not

kyn nag See kyn na²

kyn pedn prep by the end of, within (a period of time)

kynda m kind See also dres kynda

kyns adv previously; former (adjectivally)

kyns ages See kyns [ès]

kyns [ès] prep before

kyns ès hedhy phr immediately

kyns napell phr before long, soon

kyns oll phr first [of all]; most importantly, above all

kyns pedn See kyn pedn

kynth See kyn conj

kynvan m wail(ing)

kynyewel v dine

kyst f kystyow box

kyst to f kystyow roof box

kyttryn m kyttrynyow bus

labma See lebmel

lacka adj worse

lader m ladron thief

ladha v kill

ladrans m theft

lafyl adj lawful

lagas m lagasow eye

laghyades f laghyadesow female lawyer

laghyas m lahysy lawyer

lagya v splash

laha m lahys law

Lanahevran St Keverne

Lanstefan Launceston

Lanuon Lannuon (French, Lannion)

Lanust St Just

Lanwedhenek Padstow

larch See larj

larj adj generous

larjes m generosity

lâss m lace

lath f lathow yard (measure)

latha m lathys lath, strut

lathya v fix with a lath / strut

latty m lattiow slaughterhouse

Latyn m Latin

launchya v launch

launder m laundrys gutter

launderweyth m guttering

lavar m lavarow utterance; sentence See also pàr lavarow, wàr verr lavarow

lavar coth m lavarow old saying

lavar coth comparya m lavarow traditional simile

lavasos v venture

lavrak m lavregow (pair of) trousers

lavrak cot m lavregow (pair of) shorts

lavurya v labour, toil

lawl See leverel

le m leow place See also in le, in le a², in neb le, in pùb le

le quant less; fewer See also dhe le

le may⁵ See may⁵

leba⁵ See may⁵

lebma⁵ See may⁵

lebmel v jump

lebmyn adv now

ledan adj broad, wide

leder f ledrow slope; bias

ledn f lednow blanket

ledrek adj sloping; biased

ledry v slope, slant

lêdya v lead

lêdyor m lêdyoryon leader

leegy v locate

leek adj local

leg adj lay

legryans m corruption

lehe v reduce

lejer m frying pan

lel adj loyal

lelder m loyalty

le’ma⁵ See may⁵

lemen prep except [for]

lemyga v sip

lendya v lend

lent adj slow

lenter adj shining, gleaming

lent’he v slow

lentry v shine, gleam

lenwel v fill

leouta m loyalty See Lesson 6

lergh See warlergh

les m breadth, width

les m interest

lêsa v spread

Lesard The Lizard

lescans m swaying

les’hanow m les’henwyn nickname

lesky v burn

lesson m lessons lesson

lesson tre m lessons homework

lesta v hinder

Lester Noy m Noah’s Ark

lestry pl dishes

let See heb let

leth m milk

leth shakys m milkshake

lether m leather

Lethesow Seven Stones Reef; Lyonesse

lettya v prevent

letys col letysen lettuce

leugh m leuhy calf

leun adj full

leun-⁽²⁾ pref full

leun crindythyow phr cliché-ridden

leunstroth m leunstrothow lockdown

leur m leuryow floor

leurneth m area (measurement)

leurya v floor

leuv f hand

lev m levow voice

level m levelyow level

leven adj smooth

levender m smoothness, consistency

leverel v say

leveryans m pronunciation

levna v iron

lew m lewyow rudder

lewyador m lewyadoryon pilot

lewyas v steer; drive

lewyor m lewyoryon driver

lewyores f lewyoresow female driver

lewyth m lewydhyon governor (school)

leyth adj moist, humid

leythter m moisture, humidity

lien m literature

lien codna m lienyow scarf

lien dorn m lienyow handkerchief

lien gwely m lienyow bed sheet

lies quant many

lies huny phr many people

lies torn phr often

liesgweyth phr many times

liesleur adj multistorey

liesplek adj multiple

lim gwydn m whitewash

limaval m limavallow lime (fruit)

lin m flax

lînednor m lînenoryon ruler

lînen f lînednow line; string (of bow, puppet)

lîsak adj muddy

lîter m lîtrow litre

liv m lîvyow flood

lo f loyow spoon

loas m loasow spoonful

lobm adj bare

loder m lodrow stocking

logas col logosen mice

logosen dhowr f logosednow dowr water rat

lomen m mush

londya v put ashore

longus adj belonging

longya v belong

lonk m gullet

loor f moon

lordya v domineer

lordyans m domineering

lorel m lorels rascal

losk pengasen m heartburn

losow col losowen vegetables

lost m lostow tail; queue

losten f lostednow skirt

Loundres f London

lovan f lovonow rope

loven f lovednow couch, sofa

lowarth m lowarthow garden

lowen adj happy

Lowena dhis / dhywgh! phr Hello! Hi!

lowenek adj happy, merry

lowenhe v cheer up

lower quant quite a few

lowr adv enough; quite

lowr a² quant lots of

lows adj loose; relaxed

lu m luyow host, army

lùck dâ m (good) luck

lugarn m lugern lamp

luhes col luhesen lightning

lus col lusen bilberries, blueberries

lus rudh col lusen cranberries

lusow col ash(es)

ly m & f lîvyow lunch

lyberta m liberty

lybm adj sharp

lycklod m probability See also dre lycklod

lyckly adj likely, probable

lydn f lydnow lake

lydn m liquid

lydn golhy lestry m washing up liquid

lyfror m lyfroryon librarian

lyfrow See lyfryow at lyver

lyftya v lift

lyha adv least See also dhe’n lyha

lyhariv m lyharîvyow minority

lymder m sharpness

lymna v paint (art)

lymytya v limit

lÿs f lesyow court (of a lord)

Lÿs Kernow f New County Hall

lysten f lystednow band(age)

lyther m lytherow letter

lyther kemyn m lytherow will

lythyùm m lithium

lyver m lyfryow book

lyver termyn m lyfryow magazine

lyverjy m lyverjiow library; bookshop

lyverva f lyvervaow library; bookcase

lyvrow See lyfryow at lyver

lyvryk m lyvrygow booklet

lyw m lywyow colour

’m infixed pron me; to me

’m See ow³

-ma part this (with definite article)

ma na² conj where not; when not; so that not

ma nag See ma na²

ma vy personal pron I, me (emphatic)

mab m mebyon son

mab den m mankind

mabm f mabmow mother

mabmyk f mamygow mum(my), mamma

madama f madam

maga v nurture

maga⁵ adv so, as

magata adv as well

mageres f mageresow nurse (of children)

maghteth f meghtythyon maid(en)

maglen f maglednow snare; grid; gear

maglys See bos maglys gans

mail m mail (armour)

mailya v wrap

main m mainys medium, means See also dre vain, dre vain a²

mainor treven m mainoryon estate agent

mainys socyal pl social media

màl yw gans (nebonen) phr + verb-noun (someone) would like to, is looking forward to

Malan Malignus (name of the Devil)

malbe(w) dabm phr damn all

màn adv at all (with negative)

màn num zero

managh m menegh monk

Manahek Meneage

manal f manallow sheaf

maner f manerow manner, way See also in pan vaner

manerow pl manners, habit

maneuryow pl small hours

manovra v manoeuvre

manylyon pl details, data, particulars

mappa m mappys map

mar² adv so, as

mar⁴ conj if See also heb mar

mar mydnowgh phr if you like

mar mynta phr if you like

mar pleg phr please

mar plêk See mar pleg

mara⁴ See mar⁴

maras See mar⁴

marathon m marathons marathon

marchont m marchons merchant

margh m mergh horse

margh horn m mergh bike

marhas f marhajow market See also a varhas dhâ

Marhas Yow Market Jew

marhogeth v ride

marnas prep except [for]

marner m marners sailor

maroun m marouns maroon

marow adj dead

mars See mar⁴

martesen adv maybe, perhaps

marth m marthow wonder

marthusy adj remarkable

marthys adj amazing, wonderful

martyr m martyrs martyr

Marxieth f Marxism

ma’s See marnas

mas See vas, yn fas

mâta m mâtys mate

mater m maters matter

mavy personal pron me (emphatic)

maw m mebyon boy, lad

may⁵ conj where; when; so that

mayth See may⁵

me personal pron I, me

me a’th pës phr please

mebyl col furniture

mebyon gwydn pl grandsons; grandchildren

medheges f medhegesow female doctor (medical)

medhegneth m medication

medhegva f medhegvaow infirmary; GP’s surgery

medhek m medhygyon doctor (medical)

medhel adj soft

medhelder m softness, tenderness

medhes v say

medhow adj drunk, intoxicated

medra v aim

megy v smoke; stifle

mel m honey

melen adj yellow

melenek m melenegas greenfinch

mellya v interfere

mellyans m interference

melyas v grind

melynor m melynoryon miller

men adj vigorous See also yn fen

men m meyn stone

mena See meneth

menboos m menbosow stone (measure)

mencyon See gwil mencyon a²

menegor m menegoryon indicator

menestrouthy m (small) orchestra, band

meneth m menydhyow mountain

Meneth Myhâl Mont Saint-Michel

meneth rew m menydhyow iceberg

menowgh adj frequent

menow’hy v frequent

menscrif m menscrîvyow inscription (on stone)

mentêna v maintain, keep

Mentênour m Conservative, Tory

mentênya See mentêna

mêny m mênys family (as a household)

mênya v mean

mênyng m meaning

menystra v administer, manage

menystrans m administration

meppyk m meppygow little lad

mer m bone marrow

meras See miras

merchont See marchont

merk m merkys mark, brand

merkya v mark; remark, notice

merkyl m merclys miracle

mernans m death

merth m mirth

merwel v die

mery adj merry

mery v snivel

meryt m merytys merit

mès conj but

mès prep See marnas

mes See dhe ves, in mes, in mes a²

mes a² See in mes a²

mes a dhorn(ow) phr immediately

mes a fordh phr astray

mes a fordh a² prep out of the way of

mesk See in mesk

messach m messajys message

mêster m mêstrysy master, boss

Mêster title Mr

Mêstres title Mrs, Ms, Ma’m

Mêstresyk title Miss

mêstry m mastery See also gwil mêstry a², gwil mêstry wàr²

mêstrynjys m mastery

mêsva f mêsvedhow inch

metafor m metaforow metaphor

mêter m mêtrow metre (length)

meth m shame

methor m methoryon caterer; quartermaster

methus adj embarrassing

methy v feed (a baby); cater (for)

metya v meet

metyans m metyansow meeting

meur adj great

meur adv much, a lot

meur [a]² quant much, a lot of

meur y bris phr important

meur y valew phr valuable

meurgerys adj much loved

mewghya v sponsor

Meyn Eglos the Manacles

mil² f/num a/one thousand

mildir f mildiryow mile

milgen m fur

milvil num a/one million

min m minyon lip(s)

minvlew col moustache

minwharth m minwharthow smile

minwherthyn v smile

mir m look

miras v look

mis m mîsyow month

mis Du adv/m [in] November

mis Ebrel adv/m [in] April

mis Efen adv/m [in] June

mis Est adv/m [in] August

mis Genver adv/m [in] January

mis Gorefen adv/m [in] July

mis Gortheren adv/m [in] July

mis Gwydngala adv/m [in] September

mis Hedra adv/m [in] October

mis Kevardhu adv/m [in] December

mis Mê adv/m [in] May

mis Merth adv/m [in] March

mis Metheven adv/m [in] June

mis Whevrel adv/m [in] February

mockya v mock

mockyans m mockery

modern adj modern

modryp f modrebeth aunt

mog m smoke

mogh col swine

moghhe v augment, increase

Molatuw! interj Damn!

molethy v curse

molgh dhu f molhas du blackbird

molgh dowr f molhas dipper

molgh loos f molhas song thrush

mollath f molothow curse

mon adj slender, slim

mona m money

mona spênys m expenditure

mones See mos

montolly v weigh

montollys adj weighed; balanced, even

moos f mosow table

mor m morow sea

mora v go berry picking

mora v put to sea

moral adj moral

mordardha See mordardhya

mordardhya v surf

mordarow m morderewy bull seal; walrus

morethak adj sorrowful

morlader m morladron pirate

morlenel m high tide

morlu m morluyow fleet, navy

morrep m coast(line)

mortal adj mortal; lethal

mortholya v hammer

morvran f morvryny cormorant

mos v go

mos wàr stray phr get lost

mostethes m filth

mothow pl breakdown, failure; disaster

môtorfordh f môtorfordhow motorway

motta m mottys mote

môvya v move

mowes f mowesow girl

moy quant more See also dhe voy

moyha adv most

moyha kerys phr favourite

moyhariv m moyharîvyow majority

mùllyon col clover; clubs (card suit)

mûn m mineral

mûndalas m royalties

munys adj tiny

mùrder m murder

muscok adj mad

muskegy v madden

musur m musurow measure

musurel toth f musurellow speedometer

mûsyk m music

mûtya v mope, sulk

my See me

mycroscobmyn m mycroscobmow microchip

mydnas v wish to (only in fixed phrases and early historical texts); auxiliary forming future, future-in-the-past, conditional tenses

myken f animosity

mylega v curse

mylyon m mylyons million

mynoryta m mynorytas minority

myns m size, quantity

myns a² phr everything that

myns a woraf See kebmys a / dell woraf

mynsonieth f geometry

mynysen f mynysow minute

myrgh f myrhas daughter; girl

myrour m myrours mirror

myssyon m myssyons mission

mytern m myterneth king

myternes f myternesow queen

myttyn adv/m [in the] morning

’n infixed pron him, it (masculine reference); to him, to it (masculine reference)

na conj nor; or rather

na² conj that … not

na² part expresses certain negatives

na² pron who / which … not (introducing adjectival clause)

na³ See na felha, na fors, na hen, na whath

nâ interj no

-na part that (with definite article)

na … na conj neither … nor

Na borth awhêr! phr Don’t worry!

na dâ na drog phr so-so

na felha phr any farther / further, any longer (in negative sentence); no farther / further, no longer (when negative implied)

na fors phr no matter

na hen adv otherwise (in negative sentence)

Na vëdh anês! phr Don’t worry!

na whath phr yet (in negative sentence); not yet (when negative implied)

nacyon m nacyons nation

Nadelyk m Christmas

nag See na and na²

nagonen attributive adj/pron any (emphatic in negative sentence); no (emphatic when negative implied); a single one (in negative sentence); not a single one (when negative implied)

naha v deny; refuse

najeth f naswedhow needle

nàm m namow spot, blemish

namenowgh adv often (in negative sentence); not often (when negative implied)

nameur quant much (in negative sentence); not much (when negative implied)

namna² part almost

namnag See namna²

namnygen adv just now, a moment ago

namoy adv any more, anymore (in negative sentence); no more (when negative implied) See also heb namoy

nampëth See neppëth

naneyl adv either (in a negative sentence)

naneyl … na conj neither … nor

nans part by now

nans See in nans, wàr nans

Nans Agolen Nancegollan

napell adv a long time, a long while (in negative sentence) See also kyns napell

nas f nâsyow quality, feature

nasweth See najeth

nâsya v affect

nath m nathas puffin

Natsy adj/m Natsys Nazi

natur m & f nature

naturek adj natural

natureth m & f natural feeling, human nature

naw num nine

nawnjegves num nineteenth

nawnjek num nineteen

nawves num ninth

neb adj some, any

neb pron someone, anyone

neb gradh phr to some extent, up to a point

neb tra pron something, anything

nebes quant a little; a few

nebonen pron someone, anyone

nefra adv ever present / future reference See also bys nefra

negedhek adj negative

negys m negycyow business

nen m nenow ceiling

nena See i’n eur-na

neppëth pron something, anything

nepprës adv sometime

nerth m nerthow power, energy

nerthek adj powerful

nerv m nervow nerve

nes adj near See also in nes

nes adv at all (with negative)

nes’he v approach

nes’hevyn pl relatives

nessa adj nearer; nearest; next; second (in a series)

nessa tro phr next time

neujedna v stitch

nev m nevow heaven

nevek adj heavenly

new f newyow sink

new toos f newyow kneading trough

newton m newtonow newton

neyja v swim; fly

neyth m neythow nest

neythy v nest, nestle

neythys adj embedded

nôcyon m nôcyons notion

Nor’vy See godhvos

Normandy Normandy

norter m upbringing

north adj/m north

Norvÿs See an Norvÿs

noryshya v nourish

nos f nosow night

Nos dâ phr Good night

nos jùnya m nosow hyphen

nosweyth adv in the night

nosweyth f noswethyow eve(ning)

nosweyth dauns f nosweythyow (evening) dance, ball

nosweyth ilow f nosweythyow (evening) concert

nôta m nôtys note (banknote, music)

nôten f nôtednow note, memo

noth adj naked

notha f nakedness

nothhe v strip naked

nôtya v note; announce

novel m novellys novel

novellyk m novelygow novella

novelyth m novelydhyon novelist

now interj now

nowedhy v renew, update

nown m hunger

nownek adj hungry

nowodhow pl news

nowyth adj new

nùmber m nùmbers number

ny² part expresses negative statements

ny personal pron we, us

Ny’m deur phr It’s nothing to do with me

Ny vern! phr Never mind! It doesn’t matter!

nyns See ny²

nyny personal pron we, us (emphatic)

nyver m nyverow number

O name of letter O

Ô! interj Oh!

ober m oberow task, job

obery v work, operate (with idea of accomplishment)

obma adv here See also bys obma

ocasyon See chêson

odour m odours odour, smell

offendya v offend

offrydna v offer up, sacrifice

ogas adj/adv near; almost See also in ogas

ogas dhe² prep near to

ogas ha prep almost (with nouns, pronouns and numerals)

ogas hag See ogas ha

ogasty adv almost

ogh interj oh (emotion)

oker m interest (on deposit or loan)

ol m olow track, trace

ola v cry, weep

olas m & f hearth

olew m olive oil

oll adj all

Oll an gwelha phr Best regards

ollkebmyn adj universal, general

omajer m omajers vassal

omassaya v exercise

ombarusy v prepare oneself

omberthy v balance (oneself)

omborth reydhek m gender balance

ombrederus adj meditative

ombredery v consider, reflect upon

ombrevy v prove (to be)

ombrofya v apply (for a job etc)

omdava v contact (one another)

omdedna v retire, withdraw

omdednans m retirement

omdhascor v submit

omdhehesy v fling oneself

omdhesedha v adapt (oneself)

omdhesky v teach oneself

omdhevas adj/m omdhevasow orphan

omdhon m behaviour

omdhon v behave

omdhyscor m omdhyscoryon self-study learner

omdhysqwedhes v appear

omdôwlel v wrestle, struggle

omdrockya v bathe, soak (oneself)

omfydhyans m confidence

omgelgh m environment

omgelmy v get involved; log in

omgemeres v take responsibility (for some undertaking)

omglôwes v + adjective feel (that one is in a particular state)

omgolorya v take on a hue

omhowla v sunbathe

omjùnya v join intransitive

omladha v kill oneself

omlath m combat

omlath v fight (one another)

omry v yield, surrender

omryddya a² phr get rid of

omsensy v feel (emotionally, mentally)

omsettya v attack intransitive

omvetya v meet up

omwheles v overturn

omwil v pretend to be

omwolhy v wash (oneself)

omwysca v get dressed

ôn m ên lamb

onen num/pron one

onest adj decent

onester m decency

only adv only

onora v honour

onyon col onyonen onions

oos m osow age

ôp m ôpys ope, alley

optycyan m optycyans optician

ôpyn adj open

opynyon m opynyons opinion

ordyr m ordrys order

organek adj organic

orkestra m orkestras (large) orchestra

ors m orsas bear

orses f orsesow she-bear

ort See orth

orth prep up against; @ (in web address)

orth an dallath phr at first

ost m ôstys host

ostel f ostelyow hotel

ôstes f ôstesow hostess

ôstya v stay (as a guest)

ôstyas m ôstysy guest

ot See otta

ot obma phr here is / are (pointing)

oteweth See worteweth

otham m othobmow need See also dres otham

othomva f othomvaow services (on major road)

otta interj there is, there are (pointing)

our m ourys hour

outray m outrage, atrocity

overweles v supervise

ow³ possessive pron my; me (direct object of verb-noun)

ow⁴ part makes so called ‘present participle’

Ow gaja dhe why phr I’m willing to bet

ow tùchya prep about, concerning (with nouns)

ow tùchya dhe² prep about, concerning (with pronouns)

own m fear

ownek adj frightened

ôwnter m ôwntras uncle

owr m gold

owraval m owravallow orange

owrdynk m owrdyncas goldfinch

owrek adj golden

owrlyn m silk

owth See ow⁴

oxygen m oxygen

oy m oyow egg

oy Benet m oyow egg Benedict

oyl m oil

pà² See pàn²

pack m packys pack

packet m packettys packet

pad m paddys pad

padel f padellow pan

padn m padnow cloth, (woven) fabric

padnweyth m textiles, drapery

pain m painys pain

paint m paintys paint

paintya v paint

pal f palyow spade

palores f paloresow chough

palys m palycys palace

pan adj what

pàn² conj when

pan fordh pynag a² conj however, in whatever way

pan lies quant how many

pan lies pynag quant however many

pan lower torn phr how often

pan termyn [a]² phr when

pan vaner adj what kind of See also in pan vaner

pana² adj what

pana dermyn [a]² phr when

pana lies quant how many

pandra²pron what

panes col panen parsnips

papadùm m papadùms poppadom

paper m paperyow paper

par See a’n par-ma and a’n par-na

par dell² See kepar dell²

par ha See kepar ha

pàr hap phr perhaps

pàr lavarow phr in words

paragraf m paragrafow paragraph

parcel m & f portion, group

parchemynek adj made of parchment

parhus adj permanent

park m parcow enclosed field

park kerry m parcow car park

park poblek m parcow park

parkya v par

parleth m parledhow parlour

parra m parrys team

part m partys part See also i’n contrary part

part … part phr partly … partly

parth f parthow side

parusy v prepare; cook

parwys m parwysy dividing wall; bulkhead

parys adj ready

paryster m readiness

passa v cough

passya v pass

passyon m passion

pasta m pasta

pasty m pastys pasty

patâta m patâtys potato

pathos m pathos

patron m patronyow pattern

paw m & f pawyow paw

Pe name of letter P

pê v pay

peb See pùb pron

pebor m peboryon baker

pecar See kepar

pecar dèr² See kepar dell²

pecar dr’ See kepar dell²

pecara See kepar ha

peder num four (with feminine noun)

pedn m pednow head; end

pedn arâg m pednow bow, prow

pedn bloodh m anniversary; birthday

pedn êhel m pednow pole (of planet)

pedn paly m pednow blue tit

pedn pyst m fool

pednglow brâs m penglowas great tit

pednwydn adj white-capped

pedrak adj/m pedrogyon square

pedry v rot

pegans m means (money)

pejadow m prayer

pel f pelyow ball

pel droos f football

pel gowel f basketball

pel neyjys f volleyball

pel roos f netball

pel vas f baseball

peldrosyor m peldrosyoryon footballer

pelednyk f pelenygow pill

pell adj far; long (time)

pellder m distance

pellgôwsel v speak by telephone

pellwolok f television

pelour m fur

pêmons socyal pl benefits (social security)

pêmont m pêmons payment

penarth f penarthow promontory

pendescador m pendescadoryon head teacher

pendescadores f pendescadoresow female head teacher

pendom adj extreme (in attitude)

pendra f pendrevow village

peneglos f peneglosyow cathedral

penfenten m penfentydnyow source; spring (water)

pengasen f stomach

penlugarn m penlugern headlamp, headlight

penrîn m penrînyow cape, naze

pens m pensow pound

penscol f penscolyow university

pentir m pentiryow headland

penty m pentiow cottage

Penvelen See Elen Benvelen

penvenyster m penvenysters prime minister

Penzans Penzance

per col peren pears

percepcyon m perception

percêvya v perceive

perfeth adj perfect

perfëth See perfeth

performans m performansow performance

performya v perform

perhedna v own, possess

perhenogeth m ownership

perhenogeth dre brÿsles m leasehold

perna See prena

perseverens m perseverance

person m persons person

personek adj personal

perswâdya v persuade, convince

persyl col parsley

persyl Cathay col coriander

perthuan f perthuenas tawny owl

perthy v bear

perthy awhêr phr worry verb

perthy cov phr remember

perthy own phr be afraid

perthyans m patience

perthynas m perthynasow relationship

perthynecter m relativity

peryl m perylyow peril, danger, risk

peryllya v endanger; risk

peryllys adj dangerous

pes quant how many

pës dâ gans phr pleased with

pesky v feed

peskytter may⁵ conj as soon as

pesqweyth adv how often

pesqweyth y⁵ conj whenever

peswar num four

peswarden m quartet

peswardhegves num fourteenth

peswardhek num fourteen

peswora num fourth

pesy v pray; request

pêsya v continue; last

pëth m asset(s)

pëth pron what See also an pëth

petrol m petrol

peur⁵ adv when

pew verb possess, own

pias col piasen magpies

pib f pîbow pipe

pîbel f pîbellow pipe

piga v prick; excite

pigans m excitement

pigus adj exciting

pil m pîlyow battery

pînaval m pînavallow pineapple

pîss m pîcys piece

pith m pîthow sunken well

pla m plaow plague

plain adj plain, clear

planet m planettys planet

plâss m plâcyow place

plastyk m plastic

plat adj flat

plât m plâtyow plate

plattya v crouch, squat

ple⁵ adv where

plêdya v plead, argue

pleg m plegow fold

plegadow m wish, inclination

plegya v bend

plegya v please

plêkya See plegya ‘please’

plenta quant plenty (of)

plenteth See plenta

plesont adj pleasant

plêsya v please

pleth See ple⁵

plit m situation

plobm m lead (metal)

plos adj dirty

pluv col pluven feathers

pluvak f pluvogow cushion

pluven f pluvednow pen

pluven blobm f pluvednow plobm pencil

Plymoth Plymouth

plynchya v flinch; wince

plynken f plynkednow plank

plysk col plysken husks

plyth adj pliant

pò conj or

pò (bò)… pò (bò) conj either … or

pob See pùb pron

pobas v bake

pobel f people

poblans m population

poblegy v publicize

poblek adj public

pôchya v poach (cook)

pock m pockyow push, prod

pocket m pockettys pocket

podcast m podcastys podcast

poder m decay, corruption; worthless stuff

podyk m podygow jug

poken conj or else

polansek adj speculative

poll m pollow pool

poll neyja m pollow swimming pool

pollat m polatys fellow

pollgor m pollgorow committee

pols m pulse; moment (very short duration, not point in time)

polycy m polycys policy

polyshya v polish

polytygieth f politics

polytygor m polytygoryon politician

polytyk adj political

pons m ponsow bridge

pons kerdh m ponsow footbridge

pons lewyas m ponsow bridge (of ship)

ponsfordh f ponsfordhow viaduct

ponya v run (of something animate)

poos adj heavy

poos m posow weight

pôpa m pôpys puffin

pop-ÿs col popcorn

popty m poptiow bakery

pòr² adv very

poran adv exactly

porcyon m porcyons portion

porhel m porhelly pig

porpos m purpose, intention, plan

porposya v intend

porrês intensifies res ‘necessity’

porth m porthow harbour; cove

Porth Coverek Coverack

Porth Du Poldhu Cove

Porth Ewstek Porthoustock

Porth Ia St Ives

Porth Towan Porthtowan

Por’treth Portreath

porva f porvaow pasture

pory v browse

posa v lean

posa worth phr lean against

possybyl adj possible

possybylta m possybyltas possibility

poster m heaviness

posyjyon m depression, despair

pot m pottow pot

pôt m pôtow kick

pottys adj potted

pôtya v kick

pow m powyow country

Pow an Sowson phr England

Pow Densher Devon

Pow Rësohen Oxfordshire

Pow Swyts Switzerland

power m power

powes m rest, pause

powes v rest, pause intransitive

powesva f resting-place; break

pows f powsyow dress, frock

poynt m poyntys point

poynt a skians phr maxim

poyntya v appoint; allocate, assign

poyntyans m poyntyansow appointment, fixture

practycya v practise

practys m practycyow practice; exercise

prag adv why

praga See prag

prag na² phr why not, why … not

praisya v praise

pras m prasow meadow

Pras Praze

prat m prattys practical joke

pray m prey

precyùs adj precious

predery v think

predn m wood

predn brâs m prednyer boom (of sail)

prena v buy

prenas m prenasow purchase

prenassa v go shopping

prenor m prenoryon buyer, purchaser

prentysieth f apprenticeship

prevyans m testing

prës m prejyow time; meal See also i’n gwelha prës, i’n gwetha prës

prës ly See ly

presens m presence

present attributive adj present See also an present termyn

presentya v present

presentyans m presentation

prest adv all the time

prestyor m prestyoryon lender (of money)

presydent m presydens president

pretendya v claim

prëv golow m prevyon glow worm

prevessa v go catching worms

prevy v try (test), prove

prias m & f priosow spouse

pris m prîsyow prize; price See also a bris

pris profys m prîsyow quotation (for job)

problem m problemow problem

professour m professours professor

profet m profettys prophet

profus m profujy prophet

profya v offer

profyans m profyansow offer

profyt m profit

project m projectow project

romys m promyssyow promise

promyssya v promise

provia v provide

provôkya v provoke

provyns m provyncys province

prow m advantage

prownter m prontyryon priest

prowt adj proud

Prùssyan adj Prussian

pryck m point

prydydhieth f poetry

prydyth m prydydhyon poet

prÿjweyth m moment, instant

pryntya v print

pryntyor m pryntyoryon printer

prysk col prysken shrubs

prysklowek f prysklowegow shrubbery

prÿsles m lease

pryson m prysons prison

prysonya v imprison

pryva adj private

pryveth See pryva

pùb adj every

pùb pron everyone

pùb eur oll phr always

pùb huny pron everyone

pùb termyn adv always

puber m pepper

pùbonen pron everyone

pùdyn m pùdyns pudding

pùdyn gorhal m duff

pùnyon m pùnyons gable

pùnyshya v punish

pùpprës adv always

pùppynag may⁵ conj wherever

pùptra pron everything

pur adj pure

pùrpur adj purple

pùscador mytern m pùscadors kingfisher

py adj which, what py⁵ adv where py conj or

py eur⁵ adv what time, when

py hanow phr who (asking someone’s name)

py le⁵ adv where

py lies quant how many

py plâss adv where

py seul quant how much; how many

py tyller adv where

pyckla v pickle

pyctour m pyctours picture

pyctùresk adj picturesque

pydn See warbydn

pygebmys quant how much; how many

pygebmys pynag quant however much; however many

Pylat Pilate

pyle See py le

pyltya v pelt; harass

pymp num five

pympes num fifth

pymthegves num fifteenth

pymthek num fifteen

pynag pron whatever; whoever

pynag oll⁽²⁾ adj whatever

pyncha m pynchys pinch

pyneyl pron which one (of two)

pyneyl a² … pò [a²] conj whether … or

pyneyl a² … pò na conj whether … or not

pyneyl pynag pron whichever (of two)

pynta m pyntys pint (of)

pypynag [oll] adj whichever, whatever

pypynag oll may⁵ conj wherever

pÿs col pysen peas

pysk m pùscas fish

pyskessa v go fishing

pysky m pyskys pixie

pyssîn m fishpond; swimming pool

pystry m witchcraft

pystyga v injure

pystyk m pystygow injury

pystylya v spout, spray

pyta See pyteth

pyteth m pity

pyth adj stingy, mean

pyth adv where

pytsa m pytsas pizza

pyw pron who; whose

pyw a’n (or an) jowl phr whoever (emphatic question)

pyw pynag pron whoever

pywa See pyw

Pywdô Cluedo^®

qwalyta m quality

qwantùm m qwanta quantum

qwarel m qwarels pane

qwarter m quarter

qwartron m qwartronys direction; part of town

qwestyon m qwestyons question

qweth f qwethow piece of fabric, garment

qwiet adj quiet

qwit adv completely

Qwo name of letter Q

qwylkyn m qwylkydnow frog

qwyttya v quit, leave

qwyz m qwyzys quiz

radn f radnow part

radna v divide; share; deal (cards)

radnans m ranansow deal (cards)

radnor m ranoryon dealer (cards)

radyô m radyôs radio

rag conj for

rag prep for; in order to; because of; from (barrier sense) See also in rag, wàr rag

rag dowt prep + infinitive construction in case

rag dowt na² conj + subjunctive in case … not

rag fra See prag and praga

rag fra na² See prag na²

rag fraga See prag and praga

rag fraga na² See prag na²

rag ha dhelergh phr fore and aft

rag hebma phr therefore, this is why

rag hedna phr therefore, that’s why

rag may⁵ conj + subjunctive in order that, so that

rag na² conj + indicative because … not

rag na² conj + subjunctive in order that … not, so that … not

rag tro phr temporary, provisional

raglavar m raglavarow foreword

ragleverys adj (afore)said

ragpren m subscription

ragvreus f ragvreusow prejudice

ragwel See an ragwel wàr an awel

rainya v reign

ranjy m ranjiow flat, apartment

ras m rasow favour

rascayl m mob

re adv too; too much, too many

re pron ones

re² part completive particle used with preterite tense; also functions as relative pronoun

re² prep by (in exclamations)

re bo govenek phr I hope so, let’s hope so

re nebes phr too little

real adj real

realeth m reality

realystek adj realistic

rebellyans m rebellion

recêva v receive

recêvya See recêva

receyt m receytys recipe

reckna v reckon

recknans m reckoning

recordya v record

recordyans m recordyansow recording

recowntya v recount, tell

Redrudh See Ewny Redrudh

redya v read

redyans m reading

redyor m redyoryon reader

redyores f redyoresow female reader

regardya v regard; bear in mind

regyth col regythen live coals

relyjyon m religion

remainya v remain, stay

remembra v remember

remembra dhe² phr remind

remembrans m memory, recollection

remnant m remnans remainder

remuvya v remove

ren See re² prep

renky v snore; snort; croak; gurgle

rent m rentys rent; pl income

rentya v rent, hire

repôsya v repose, sleep

representya v represent

reqwîrya v require

rës adj See ry

res m necessity

res part See re part

res verb must

rescous m rescue

resek m strong current (in river, sea)

resek v run (of something inanimate)

Rësohen Oxford

rêson See dre rêson, dre rêson a²

rêsonus adj reasonable

restorya v restore

restry v arrange (tidily)

restrydna v file

restryn m restrydnow file

restrys adj listed (investments)

rèv m presumption

revolûcyon m revolûcyons revolution

revrons m respect

rew m frost, ice

rew m row See also in udn rew

rêwl f rêwlys rule

rêwlya v control

rêwlys adj regular

rewy v freeze

Ria reva! interj Gosh! Wow!

rial adj royal rin m rînow hill(side)

rîss m rice

rîvbost m email

ro m royow gift

rogh m grunt; snore

roghwherthyn v chortle

rol f rolyow roll; list

rol prîsyow f rolyow price list

rolya v roll

rolyans m roll(ing)

rom m rômys room

Rom Rome

rom desky m rômys classroom

rom kydnyow m rômys dining-room

rom studhya m rômys study

Roman adj Roman

rônd adj round

ronk m snore; snort; croak; gurgle

ronk in y vriansen phr frog in [his] throat

roos f rosow net

roosweyth m roosweythow network

rôp golya m rôpys sheet (of fore and aft sail)

rôp hâlya m rôpys halyard

ros col rosen roses

ros f rosow wheel

ros f rosyow heath(land)

ros arâg f rosow front wheel

ros dhelergh f rosow back wheel

ros lew f rosow wheel, helm (of boat)

ros lewyas f rosow steering-wheel (of car etc)

rôstyans m roast(ing)

rôsva f rôsvaow drive; avenue

rôsyas m stroll

roweth m importance, prestige

rownd See rônd

rowtor m rowtors person in charge; manager (football)

rudh adj red

rudhak m rudhogas robin

rùm m rum

rusk col rusken rind, peel; bark

rùstla v rustle

rûth f rûthow crowd

rùttya v rub

ry v give

ry vôta phr cast a vote

ryb prep beside

rybfordh f rybfordhow slip road

rych adj rich

rychys m wealth, richness

ryddya v rid

rydra v sift

rypsav m rypsavow lay-by

ryver m ryvers river

’s infixed pron her, it (feminine reference); to her (feminine reference); them; to them

sacra v dedicate

sad adj serious

sagh m seghyer bag

sagh keyn m seghyer knapsack

salad m saladys salad

salla v salt

salow adj safe and sound

salujy v greet

sampyl m samplys sample

sans adj holy

sans m sens saint

sansyl adj pious

sant m sandys course, dish

sant melys m sandys dessert

sarchya v search; search for

sarf f syrf snake

sarf neyja f syrf kite (toy)

sauna m saunas sauna

sav See a’y sav

savla m savleow position; (bus) stop

saw adj intact, safe

saw conj but

saw prep save [for]

sawor m saworyow fragrance; flavour

sawor mangô m mango chutney

saworek adj fragrant

sawya v conserve; recover (after illness)

scaldya v scald

scant adj scarce

scant adv barely, hardly, scarcely

scanyans m scanyansow scan

scappya v get away, escape

scarf m scarfys joint (carpentry)

scath f scathow boat

scath sawya f scathow lifeboat

scattya v break up, shatter

scav adj light (weight)

scavel [cronak] f scavellow mushroom

scavel serth f scavellow bar stool

sciens m sciencys science

sciensek adj scientific

scodhya v support

scodhya wàr² phr depend on (reliance)

scol f scolyow school

scol elvednek f scolyow primary school

scol nessa f scolyow secondary school

scol vêthryn f scolyow mêthryn nursery school, pre-school

scolheyk m scolheygyon scholar

scolkyores f scolkyoresow female sneak

scolor m scoloryon (school) pupil; scholar

scolvaw m scolvebyon schoolboy

scolvêster m scolvêstrysy schoolmaster

scon adv quickly; soon; immediately See also yn scon

sconya v refuse

scoodh f scodhow shoulder

scoos m scojow shield

scooskê m scooskeow crash barrier

scor m scôrys score

scoren f scorednow branch

scorn m scorn

scorya v score

scot m bill

Scotland Scotland

scovarn f scovornow ear

scowl m scowlas kite (bird)

scowt f scowtys hussy

scrambla v scramble (eggs)

scravynas v scrabble

screfa See scrifa

screw m screwys screw

scrif m scrîvyow document

scrif balans m scrîvyow balance sheet

scrifa v write

scrîja v scream

scriven bedh f scrivednow bedh epitaph

scruthus adj horrible

scrynk m grimace

scrynkya v snarl

scryp m scryppys bag, case

scryp only phr hand baggage only

scryvynyades f scryvynyadesow female secretary

scryvynyas m scryvynysy secretary

scub m broom

scubya v sweep

scubylen f scubylednow brush

scùllya v spill, slop

scûner m scûners schooner

sê m sêys seat

secùnd num second

sedha See esedha

sedhor m sedhoryon diver

sedhy v sink

sëgh adj dry

seha v dry

sehes m thirst

sehyk m sehygow sachet

Selevan St Levan

selsygor m selsygoryon sausage maker

selsyk col selsygen sausages

selsykty m selsyktiow sausage house

selvenek adj basic, fundamental

selwans m salvation; save (by goalkeeper)

selwel v save

sêlya v seal

semblans m simile

semlant m appearance

sêmly adj handsome, pretty

sempel adj simple

sempelhe v simplify

sempleth m simplicity

Sèn Briek Saint-Brieg (French, Saint-Brieuc)

Sèn Jowan Awaylor St John the Evangelist

Sèn Malow Sant-Maloù (French, Saint-Malo)

seneth m senedhow parliament

sens m sencys sense

sens a ges m sense of humour

Sens dha glap! phr Shut up!

sensa v sense, feel

sensor m sensoryon holder, container

sensy v hold; consider

sensys dhe² phr obliged to (grateful)

sentement m sentementys sentiment

sentens m sentencys sentence (by court)

seny v sound, play (music etc)

senyans m sounding, ringing

separâtya v separate

ser m sery artisan

serhoges f serhogesow female dependant

serjont m serjons sergeant

serry v anger

serth adj upright; steep

serus adj artificial

servont m servons servant

servya v serve

servysy pl servants

servyour m servyours tray

servys m servicyow service

sêsnans m dressing (for salad)

sêson m sêsons season

sêsya v seize

seth f sethow arrow

setha v shoot

sethor m sethoras gannet

sethorieth f archery

settya v set

seul² adv + comparative See Book Three Lesson 7

seul m seulyow heel

seulyow hir pl high heels

seul a² phr everyone who

sevel v stand up; stand still, stop intransitive

sevel dhelergh phr stand back

sevel stag phr stop

sevel (w)orth phr refrain from

sevur adj severe

sewajya v relieve

sewajyans m relief

sewt m sewtys suit

sewt resegva m sewtys tracksuit

sewt stanch m sewtys wetsuit

sewya v follow

sewyans m sewyansow consequence, result

sewyor m sewyoryon successor

seytegves num seventeenth

seytek num seventeen

seyth num seven

seythen f seythednow week

seythves num seventh

sfynx m sfynxow sphinx

shakya v shake

shakyans m shake, shaking

shampên m champagne

shâp m shâpys shape

sherp adj sharp (often figuratively)

sherys m sherry

shînya v shine

shoppa m shoppys shop

showr a² quant loads of

showya v show

shùgra m sugar

shyndya v harm

sin m sînys sign

sîna v sign

sîra wydn m sîrys gwydn grandfather

skentoleth m intelligence, cleverness

skentyl adj intelligent, clever; smart (device)

sket adv straightaway

skeul f skeulyow ladder

skeul blegya f skeulyow folding ladder

skeusek adj shadowy

skeusen f skeusednow photograph

skeuslyw m skeuslywyow shade, tint

skew f skewyow screen

skewwyns m & f skewwynsow windscreen

skians m skiansow knowledge, intellect, intelligence

skians creftus m artificial intelligence (AI)

skit m skîtys squirt; jab (injection); diarrhoea

skîtyans m injection; ejaculation

skydnya v descend, dismount (from horse or bicycle), alight (from vehicle)

skyjyow sport pl trainers

skyl m skylyow nook, recess

skyl-² pref rather

skyla f reason

skylderrys adj slightly damaged

skyll col skyllen shoots

sley adj skilful

sleyneth m skilfulness

slynk adj slippery

slynk m slide

slynkya v slip, slide

smat m smattys ruffian

smyllyng m fragrance

snell adv quickly

snobyn m snobydnow snob

so conj so

sodhak m sodhogyon officer, official

sodhva f sodhvaow office (place)

sodyn adj sudden

sogh adj blunt

solabrës adv already

solas m solace; entertainment

solempna adj solemn

soler m soleryow gallery

sôlô adj/m sôlôs solo

somona v summon

sompna See somona

son m sonow charm

son m sonyow sound

sona v bless; enchant

soodh f sodhow position (as officer or employee)

soper m supper

soposya v suppose, assume

sordya v arise; raise

sorr m anger

sort m sortow sort, kind

sosten m food, grub

soudor m soudoryon soldier

soweny v prosper, succeed

soweth interj oh dear

sowman m sowmans salmon

sowndya v sound out

sows m sauce

Sows m Sowson Saxon; Englishman

sows cogh m tomato ketchup

Sowsnek adj English

Sowsnek m English (language)

sowthanas v bewilder

sowthenys yn teg phr pleasantly surprised

sowyn adj prosperous, successful

sparus adj frugal

spâss m spâcys space; opportunity

Spayn Spain

Spaynek m Spanish (language)

specyfyk adj specific

spêda f success

spêdya v succeed (at something specific)

spêna v spend

spessly adv especially

speyss m while See also a verr speyss

spîcek adj spicy

spîcya v spice

spît m spite

spladn adj splendid

spladna v shine

splander m brightness

splat m splattys plot of ground

splùttra v splutter

sport m sportys sport

sport dâ m fun

spot a² phr a spot of

spows m & f spouse

spredya v spread

sprûs m spruce

sprûswëdh col sprûswedhen spruces

spyrys m spyryjyon spirit

spyrysegy v encourage

spÿs See a verr spÿs

spyty m spytiow hospice

sqwardya v tear

sqwattya See scattya

sqwier m sqwieryon squire

sqwith adj tired

sqwîthus adj tiresome, boring

sqwychus adj jerky

stâbel m stâblys stable

stadyùm m stadya stadium

stag adj fixed

staga v attach

stagell f stagellow attachment, appendix

stair m stairys stair

stalla m stallys stall

stanch adj waterproof; watertight

stap m stappys step

starneth m starnedhow structure

stât m stâtys state

stâtarhow See An Stâtarhow

stâtly adj grand, magnificent

stay m stayes stay (rigging etc)

stella adv still

stenor m stenoryon miner

stenor brith m stenoras pied wagtail

ster col steren stars

sterycks pl hysterics

stevel f stevelyow room

stêvya v race, soar

stewany v drub

stock m stockys stock; pl stocks (shares etc)

stoff m material

ston m stônys stone (measure)

stoppya v stop up; stop

stoppyans m constipation

stôpya v stoop

storvya v starve

story m story

stowt adj stubborn

strait adv straight; strict

stranj adj strange

stranjer m stranjers stranger

stras m strasow bottom (interior of boat); hold (of ship)

strechya v stretch out; delay; linger

strem m strêmys stream (all senses)

strêt m strêtys street

strêt arâg m fore / high street

strethassay m strethassayes lateral flow test

strif m strife, struggle

strik adj fast, prompt

strîvya v strive, struggle

strîvyans m struggle, effort

strolla v litter

stubma v curve, bend; twist

studh m studhyow condition, state

studhva f studhvaow study (room)

studhya v study

studhyans m study, studies

studhyor m studhyoryon student

styfa v squirt

styr m styryow meaning

styrya v mean; explain

sùbmen f sùbmednow sum, amount

sùbstans m sùbstancys substance

sùffra v suffer

sùffrans m suffering

sùgan m juice

sùgan gwynyol m maple syrup

sugna v suck

sùmya v sum up

sur adj sure

surhe v ensure; insure

sùrjon m sùrjons surgeon

swàn m swàns swan

Swystir See Pow Swyts

Swyts See Pow Swyts

sy See jy

syg f sygyow tie, trace

syger adj lazy

sygera v laze, idle; ooze, trickle; smoulder; simmer

syker m strong drink, spirits

syght m sight; appearance

sym m symas monkey

syra m sir

syrop m syropys syrup

ta jy personal pron you (emphatic)

tabm m tybmyn bit See also dhe dybmyn

tackya v attach

tackya dêwla phr clap, applaud

taclenow pl things, effects

taclow pl things

tacluster m neatness

tâl m tâlyow forehead, brow; front, end (of something)

talas m talasow payment, fee

talas dyscans m talasow tuition fee

talas farwèl m talasow severance payment

talas treusporth m talasow transfer fee

talent m talent

talkya v talk

tallyour m tallyours platter

talveja v value, price

talvejans m valuation

talvesek adj valuable

talvesor m talvesoryon valuer

talvesygeth m value

talvos m valence, valency

talvos v value, price

tan m tanow fire

tàn imperative take

tanbellen f tanbelednow bomb; [bomb]shell

tanek adj fiery

tanek y golon phr enthusiastic

tanker m tankeryow tanker

tanow adj thin

tanowgh imperative take (plural or stranger)

tardh m tardhow burst

tardh mor m tardhow breaker

tardha v burst, explode

tarosvan m tarosvanow phantom

tarow m terewy bull

tart m tartys tart

tarya v linger

tas m tasow father

tasek adj fatherly

tastya v taste

tatty m tettys potato

taunt adj cheeky, impertinent

tauntyans m impudence

tava v touch

tavadow adj tangible

tavas m tavosow tongue; language

tavern m tavernyow pub

taw m silence

Taw dhe’n flows! phr Don’t talk nonsense!

tawesek adj silent

taxy m taxiow taxi

Te name of letter T

te personal pron you (singular)

tê m tea

tebel-⁽²⁾ pref bad, evil

tebel-dhyweth m sticky end

tebeles pl bad guys

tecter m beauty

tedha v melt

tedn dowr m tednow flush

tedna v pull, draw

tednva f tension, stress

tednvos m attraction

teg adj beautiful, pretty

teg adv very, really

tejy personal pron you (emphatic)

teknegyl adj technical

teknologieth f technology

teknyk m teknygow technique

tell² conj that

telly v perforate

tempra v moderate

tenewen m tenwednow flank, side See also wàr an eyl tenewen, wàr an tenewen aral

tent m tentys tent

tenvenek adj magnetic

tèr² See tell²

tereba prep until

tergweyth adv three times

terlentry v sparkle

term m termow / termys (technical) term

termyn m termynyow time; (academic) term See also an present termyn

termynologieth f terminology

ternos adv next day

ternos vyttyn phr next / tomorrow morning

terras m terracys terrace

terry v break

terry an jëdh m daybreak, dawn

tervans m commotion

tesen f tesednow cake

tesen patâta f tesednow hash brown

testen f testednow subject, topic

testscrif m testscrîvyow certificate

tesyans m warming

tevy v grow

tevyans m growth

tevysak adj/m tevysogyon grown up, adult

tew adj thick; fat

tewas col sand (as material)

tewedhak adj weather-beaten

tewel v fall silent

teweth m storm

tewl adj dark

tewlder m dark[ness]

tewlwolow m twilight

tewlyjyon m dark[ness], obscurity

tewolgow m dark[ness]

Tewyn Plustry Newquay

text m textow text (all senses)

teyl m manure

teylek f teylegow manure heap

teylu m teyluyow family

teythiak adj indigenous, traditional; idiomatic

teythy col attributes, essence

teythyek See teythiak

teyr³ num three (with feminine noun)

’th possessive pron your singular

’th infixed pron you; to you

th’ See yth

therapydhes f therapydhesow female therapist

tiak m tiogow farmer

tiegeth m tiegedhow household

tioges f tiogesow female farmer

tir m land See also an Tir Uhel

tir meur m mainland

tira v land

tireth m terrain, territory

tirwedh f tirwedhow landscape

tîtel m tîtlys title

to m tohow roof

to bian See aken grobm

tobackô m tobacco

tobm adj warm, hot

tobma v heat, warm up

tobmans cresednek m central heating

todn f todnow wave

TODN abbr GCSE

tôkyn m tôknys ticket

tolgh m tolhow hillock

toll f tollow toll; tax

toll m tell hole

toll fordh f road tax

toll i’n fordh phr pothole

tomals quant ample amount

tomder m heat; temperature

ton m tonyow tone; tune

tona m tonys ton

tonel f tonellow cask, keg

toos m dough

top m topyow top

torchen f torchednow torch

tormentya v torment, bully

tormont m tormontys torment, torture

torn m tornow time, occasion See also i’n tor’-ma, i’n tor’-na

torr f torrow belly

torrva f breakdown

torth f torthow loaf

tosa v knead, massage

tosans m massage

toth m speed

toth brâs phr quickly (emphatic)

toth dâ phr quickly (emphatic)

toth men phr quickly (emphatic)

totta adv See toth dâ

toul m toulys tool

tour m tourow tower

touryst m tourystyon tourist

tourystieth f tourism

towal m towellow towel

towan m tewednow sand dune

towl m towlow throw; plan

towlcost m towlcostow estimate (for job)

towledna v plan, schedule

tôwlel v throw

tôwlel predn phr cast lots

tôwlel towl phr make a plan

towlen f towlednow plan; program(me)

tr’ See tell²

tra neuter thing, stuff

tra vëth pron anything; nothing (when negative implied)

trâdwyns m trâdwynsow trade wind

tradycyon m tradycyons tradition

tradycyonal adj traditional

trafyk m traffic

trailva f trailvaow transition

trailya v turn; translate

trailyans m trailyansow turning; translation

train m trainow train

trainow munys pl model railway(s)

traita v betray

traitour m traitours traitor

tramor adj overseas

tranjyak m ecstasy

travalya v trudge, trek

traweythyow adv sometimes, occasionally

tre adj home tre adv home; back

tre f trevow town

trebuchya v stumble

tredan m electricity

tredanek adj electric

tredden m trio

tredh See inter

tredhegves num thirteenth

tredhek num thirteen

trega See triga

tregas m stay (in a place)

tregh m trehow slice

tregor m tregoryon resident

tregys See trigys

trehor m trehoryon cutter; tailor

trehy v cut

trèm f look

tremena v pass

tremenyades f tremenyadesow female passenger

tremenyans m passing

tremenyas m tremenysy passenger; pedestrian

tremenys adj deceased

tremil num three thousand

trenk adj sour

tresour m tresours treasure

trespassya v commit an offence

tressa num third

trest m trust

trester See treuster

treuster m treusters crossbeam; crossbar

trestya v trust

treth m trethow sand; (sandy) beach

Treth Fystral Fistral Beach

trettya v tread

treuscorrans m transmission

treusperthy v transfer

treuspren m treusprednyer crossbar; thwart

treusva f treusvaow crossing

treveglos f treveglosyow churchtown, village (with a church)

trevesygor m trevesygoryon settler, colonist

treveth m & f time, occasion

trevna v organize

trewa v spit

trewesy adj heavy (of blows, including figuratively)

treys crowsys phr cross-legged

trial m trials trial

trias m triasow triad

triga v dwell, stay

trigor m trigoryon inhabitant

trigva f trigvaow dwelling; address

trigys adj resident (in a place)

trist adj sad

tristans m sadness

trist’he v sadden

tro f troyow turn; time, occasion See also an dro-ma

tro ha prep towards

tro hag See tro ha

tro vian f troyow bian excursion

trobel m trouble

Trobel taw! phr Don’t worry!

trobla v trouble

troblus adj troublesome

trog an carr phr the car boot

trog dyllas m trogow suitcase

trog tedna m trogow drawer

trogh adj broken (often figuratively)

trojen f trojednas starling

troll m trollyon troll

troos m treys foot

troos’hës m troos’hësow foot (measure)

tros m noise

trosel f trosellow pedal

trosella v pedal

trouvya v discover, find

troyll f troyllyow whirl

troyllya v whirl; wind (a clock)

tru! interj alas! what a shame!

truan adj poor (to be pitied)

truesy See trewesy (and Lesson 12)

trueth m pity

trûlergh m trûlerhow path

trumach m sea crossing

trùmp m trùmpys trump

Trûrû Truro

trùssa v pack

try³ num three

tryck m tryckys trick (taken at cards)

tryg m low tide

trygh adj triumphant

tryhans num three hundred

trylyon m trylyons trillion

trynsys f trinity

tu m tuyow side See also a’n tu’vês, wàr an eyl tu, wàr an tu aral

tùch m (light) touch, tap; moment (very short duration, not point in time)

tùch quant a little

tùch tê phr tea break

tùchya v touch, tap; light (cigarette, pipe) See also ow tùchya, ow tùchya dhe²

tùchyng prep about, concerning (with nouns)

tùchyng dhe² prep about, concerning (with pronouns)

tueth m tuedhow tendency

tùll m deceit; disappointment

tùlla v cheat, deceive; disappoint

Tùrk m Tùrkys Turk

tùrnypen f tùrnypednow swede

turont m turons tyrant

tûtû m tûtûs tutu

ty See te

tyby v think (an idea)

tybyans m idea

tyckly adj tricky, awkward

tydn adj tight; painful

tydnhe v tighten, intensify

tygry m tygrias kestrel

tylda m tyldys awning; gazebo (at public event)

tyldya v cover with an awning

tyller m tyleryow place

tyller vëth adv anywhere (in negative sentence); nowhere (when negative implied)

tyly v pay; should, ought to

tyly ow tendyl phr pay as you earn (PAYE)

tynk m tyncas chaffinch

Tyntajel Tintagel Castle

tysk m & f tyscow handful (literally or figuratively)

Û name of letter U

udn⁽²⁾ num one (with noun); even (with noun, reinforcing a negative) See also in udn

udn jëdh See dëdh

udnek num eleven

udnyk adj unique; solitary See also yn udnyk

udnya v unite

ufern m ufernyow ankle

ugans num twenty

ugansves num twentieth

ugh-⁽²⁾ pref high, super, hyper, etc

ughboynt m ughboyntys maximum

ugh-clojiores f ugh-clojioresow sister (senior nurse)

ugh-violet adj ultra-violet

uhel adj high; loud See also an Tir Uhel, yn uhel

uhelder m height

uhelver m uhelveras high sheriff

uja v howl

ûla m ûlys owl

ûla gwydn m ûlys barn owl

ùncoth adj outlandish

ùnderstondya v understand

ùnderstondyng m understanding

unegves num eleventh

ùnpossybyl adj impossible

ùns m ùnsyow ounce

ùns glëb m ùnsyow fluid ounce

unsel See yn unsel

unver adj unanimous

unverhe v agree unanimously

unweyth adv once; only (reinforcing ‘if’ or a negative)

unweyth arta phr [once] again

unyêthek adj monoglot

ûnyvers m universe

ûnyversyta f ûnyversytas university

ûsadow m custom

uskys adj/adv quick; quickly, immediately

uskys’heor m uskys’heoryon accelerator

uskytter m velocity; loosely speed

ûsya v use; in preterite + verb-noun was accustomed to

uthycter m dreadfulness

uthyk adj dreadful, terrible

uthyk tra phr a lot

ùttra v utter

uvel adj humble

valew m valewys value

vas adj useful

Ve name of letter V

vell See avell

vernys m varnish

versyon m versyons version

vertu m vertus virtue

very attributive adj preceding noun very

very nebes phr very little

vëth attributive adj/adv any at all (in affirmative sentence); any (in negative sentence); no (when negative implied); even (after comparative)

vexya v vex, annoy

viaj m viajys journey, trip

viajya v travel

vil adj vile

vlòg m vloggys video blog (‘vlog’)

vodka m vodka

vorr See fordh

vôta m vôtys vote

vôtya v vote

voward m vanguard

voys m voycys voice

vu m vuys view

Vyctôryan adj/m Vyctôryans Victorian

vyrjyn f virgin

vysytya v visit

vysytyor m vysytyoryon visitor

vytamyn m vytamynow vitamin

vytel col food

‘w³ See ow³

war adj wary, cautious

war imperative beware, watch out

waryowgh imperative beware, watch out (plural or stranger)

wàr² prep on; on to

wàr an dallath See orth an dallath

wàr an eyl tenewen phr on the one hand

wàr an eyl tu phr on the one hand

wàr an tenewen aral phr on the other hand

wàr an tu aral phr on the other hand

wàr an tu delergh phr at the back

wàr anow phr oral

wàr bedn dêwlin phr kneeling

wàr dhelergh phr backwards

wàr gàm phr steadily

wàr nans phr down

wàr neb cor phr in any way, at all (with negative); anyway, besides (in affirmative sentence)

wàr not phr immediately

wàr nûk phr immediately

wàr rag phr forwards

wàr vàn phr up

wàr veneth phr uphill

wàr verr lavarow phr in short, in a word

wàr ves phr out, outside

wàr woles phr down

warbarth adv together

warbydn prep against; by (a particular time)

warbydn an howl phr anti-clockwise

warbydn obma phr by now

warden m wardens warden

wardhegor m wardhegoryon teenager

warleny adv last year

warlergh prep after

warlergh ûsadow phr as usual, usually

warra See awartha

warrantus adj authentic

We name of letter W

wèl interj well

welcùbma See wolcùbma

welcùm See wolcùm

west adj/m west

whans m whansow wish, desire

whansa v wish, desire

whar adj humane; civilized

wharê adv presently, at once

wharheans m civilization

wharth m laugh(ter)

wharthus adj ridiculous

wharvedhyans m wharvedhyansow event

wharvos v happen, take place

whath adv still; even (before comparative)

whe num six

whedhel m whedhlow story

whedhla v gossip

whedhlor m whedhloryon narrator

whedhy v swell

whedn col whednen weeds

whednar m sixpence

wheffes num sixth

wheffesor m wheffesoryon sixth former

wheg adj sweet; dear

whegen f whegednow edible sweet; darling

whegh See whe

whej ha skit phr gastro-enteritis

whel m whelyow work

whelas See whilas

whêldro f whêldroyow revolution

whêlva f laboratory

wherow adj bitter

wherthyn v laugh

wherthyn in y vriansen phr chuckle

wherthyn nerth y bedn phr roar with laughter

whêtegves num sixteenth

whêtek num sixteen

whetha v blow; puff up, inflate

whetha corn phr make a fuss

whethfy v swell, bubble

whethfyans m swelling, bubbling; inflation

whilas v seek, look for; try to

whor f wheryth sister

why personal pron you (plural or stranger)

whybana v whistle

whybanor m whybanoryon slipper; moccasin

whybonel f whybonellow flute

whyl m whylas beetle

whylen f whylas beetle

whyst interj hush

whystra v whisper

whythra v explore, research, investigate

whythrans m whythransow exploration, research, investigation

whythror m whythroryon explorer, researcher

whywhy personal pron you (plural or stranger) (emphatic)

wolcùbma v welcome

wolcùm adj welcome

wolcùm m welcome

Wordhen Ireland

wordhy adj worthy

worshyp m respect, admiration

worteweth adv at last

worth See orth

worth an dallath See orth an dallath

wor’tu ha prep towards

wor’tu hag See wor’tu ha

wosa prep after

wostallath adv at first

wosteweth See worteweth

woteweth See worteweth

wysky m whisk(e)y

y⁵ part affirmative statement particle

y personal pron they

y² possessive pron his, its (masculine); him, it (masculine) (direct object of verb-noun)

‘y² See y²

‘y³ See hy³

yagh adj well (referring to health)

yahus adj healthy (good for health)

yar f yer hen, chicken

Ye name of letter Y

Yêdhow m Yêdhewon Jew

yêhes m health

yêhes ha sawder phr health and safety

yeryk f yerygow chick(en)

yet m yettys gate

yêth f yêthow language

yêth plain f prose

yêthor m yêthoryon linguist

yêwny v yearn (for)

yey m ice, frost

yêyn adj cool, cold

yêynder m cold

yêyner m yêyneryow refrigerator

yn⁵ part forming adverb from adjective

yn fas adv properly

yn fen adv vigorously

yn scon adv quickly; soon; immediately

yn tefry adv really, seriously

yn tien adv entirely, totally, completely

yn udnyk adv uniquely; only

yn uhel phr loudly; aloud

yn unsel adv only (reinforcing saw)

ynsy personal pron they, them (emphatic)

yogùrt m yoghurt

yos m purée

yos kergh m porridge

yowynkes m youth

yowynkneth m youth

ÿs col corn

ÿs wheg col ÿsen sweetcorn

ÿst adj/m east

yth See y⁵

ytho adv [and] so, therefore

yùrl m yùrlys earl

Zed name of letter Z

zêrô m zêrôs zero

zyp m zyppys zip